Editorial Female Specialists between Autonomy and Ambivalence

his special issue is based upon an international symposium on autonomous religious women held during 2013. 1 It offers a new, comparative perspective on women as visionaries, healers and agents of social transformation in Tibet, the Himalayas and Mongolia. The contributions form a collection of ethnographically based case studies of autonomous female specialists from across this wide, but rarely compared region, which is culturally coherent in respect to the sharing of both shamanic and Buddhist traditions, and yet historically, politically and socially diverse. Notably, most of these case studies share certain dramatic and fundamentally disruptive socio-political changes that had previously created a vacuum of religious and secular education and practices. These were followed by revivals or recoveries of religion and educationwhether this concerns Tibet after the Cultural Revolution beginning in the 1980s, post-socialist Mongolia and democratisation in Bhutan starting in the 1990s, or post-Maoist democratisation and outmigration of Nepalese male labourers in the new millennium. These times of revivals made space for innovation and new opportunities, which several female specialists have seized in different ways, allowing them to become more autonomous. The case studies also allow comparison of different religious and ritual specialists, from female shamanic to meditative Buddhist practitioners, along with two female professionals in Tibetan literature and medicine. Concerning the religious practitioners, however, boundaries between their specialisations are blurred, meanings differ locally, and their roles-at times in need of recognition by a higher (male) authority-can change within one T

Over 25 years ago, Barbara Aziz lamented that a sociology of women in Tibet had barely been attempted, due to both a dearth of historical and ethnographic sources and also a lack in scholars focusing on gender and women's issues. 1 In the intervening decades, some of these issues have been addressed through anthropological, religious and historical studies of Himalayan, Tibetan and Inner Asian societies, including a growing number of female Western researchers working on the topic. 2 However, in terms of women and religious life, the dominant focus has remained firmly upon Buddhism 3 and 'mainstream' female Buddhist practitioners, in particular nuns, operating within highly institutionalized frameworks and within local communities. 4 With this international and interdisciplinary symposium, we aimed at presenting and comparing for the first time more 'autonomous' -including both ordinary and extraordinary -female religious specialists outside of Buddhist institutions in a transnational region that, despite many cultural commonalities, is rarely subject to comparison no matter what the topic. Furthermore, we deemed it important to examine autonomous female practitioners in relation to gender, kinship and religion, a topic that again has hardly been addressed transregionally within or even outside of Asia. 5 Existing ; and N. Schneider, Le renoncement au feminine. Couvents et nonnes dans le bouddhisme tibétain. Nanterre, Société d'ethnologie, 2013. 5 With the notable exception of Sondra Hausner and Meena Khandelwal (eds), Women's Renunciation in South Asia: Nuns, Yoginis, Saints, and Singers, Palgrave MacMillan, 2006.

Caring for Women's Words and Women's Bodies. A Field Note on Palmo and her "Demoness Welfare Association for Women" pp. 153-169 Nicola Schneider Self-Representation and Stories Told: the Life and Vicissitudes of Khandro Choechen pp. 171-188 Mona Schrempf Becoming a Female Ritual Healer in Eastern Bhutan pp. 189-213 * Notes on Contributors pp. 215-217

omen practising religious activities in the Himalayas was a neglected topic for a long time. Only at the end of the twentieth century, we find that addressing the issue of gender became a more prevalent topic in all fields, including academic publications in the specific area of the Himalayas and Tibet. 1 It is characteristic that these studies have mostly been done by women academics and that within the academic field we find a similar gender dichotomy as in the societies studied. Men would study male religious figures while women would study female religious practitioners. Are these gender-oriented studies influencing the findings and would the academic discourse be different if this was not the case? It might be useful to define first the scope and the methodology of this paper. This article is an overview of different religious women practitioners in contemporary Bhutan and their emerging socioreligious roles. It is based on fieldtrips, interviews, participant observation extending over 30 years and a few written sources. As the Bhutanese society is evolving very quickly due to socio-economic development and rural-urban migration, this article does not pretend to represent a definite overview on religious women practitioners in Bhutan to date. However, it is possible and also useful in light of recent social changes, to structure their practices into four major groups, and emphasise their recently changing, and in part newly evolving socio-religious roles. In order to assist the Bhutanese to read this article, the Tibetan and Dzongkha terms are spelt as they are in Bhutan with their corresponding Wylie transliteration at first use in brackets whenever possible. In Bhutan, religious women practitioners belong to four main 1

Buddhist-christian Studies, 2007

2015

revue d'etudes tibetaines

Asian Affairs, 2012

2013

This thesis investigates the nature of gender bias in Tibetan Buddhism and the specific role Western Tibetan Buddhist nuns have played in transforming such prejudice. The afore-mentioned gender bias pertains particularly to the unavailability of full ordination (bhikshuni ordination) for nuns in the Tibetan tradition. The research highlights the specific contribution made by Jetsunma Tenzin Palmo, a British woman and currently the most senior Tibetan Buddhist nun. Jetsunma Tenzin Palmo attained fame for spending twelve years meditating in a cave in the Himalayas, and for her statement that she intends to attain enlightenment in a female body. She is also the founder and abbess of a Tibetan Buddhist nunnery Dongyu Gatsal Ling in India. Tenzin Palmo is particularly outspoken in her efforts to transform gender bias within the ranks of Tibetan Buddhism, and serves as an inspiration to countless lay and monastic Buddhist women worldwide. The researcher postulates that gender equality has not yet been attained within Tibetan Buddhism. Androcentric record keeping, certain misogynistic meditation practices, and cumbersome decision making processes within the Tibetan ecclesiastic system have maintained gender bias within its institution, despite His Holiness the Fourteenth Dalai Lama's efforts to assist in the transformation of monastic attitudes. The Dalai Lama, spiritual head of Tibetan Buddhism and one of its most learned scholars, has made his position clear as far back as 2007 when he expressed his full support for the establishment of the Bhikshuni Sangha in the Tibetan tradition. Two years earlier, in 2005, he had already urged Western bhikshunis to become more involved in the issue of full ordination in Tibetan Buddhism. Western nuns in particular have therefore played a leading role in their attempts to transform gender bias in a true Buddhist spirit of patience and compassion. His Holiness the 17 th Gyalwang Karmapa has been equally outspoken on the issue. In 2010 in Bodhgaya, India, he made a commitment in front of an international audience to ordaining women as bhikshunis, and stated unequivocally that he was prepared to ordain these women himself. However, he did caution against expecting quick results, asking the audience to have patience. © © U Un ni iv ve er rs si it ty y o of f P Pr re et to or ri ia a In conclusion the thesis suggests that despite a favourable doctrinal attitude to women, ambiguity still characterises the Tibetan Buddhist approach towards females. There is tension between an underground tradition of highly accomplished female practitioners and the institutional preference for male practitioners. Institutionalised gender bias in Tibetan Buddhism therefore has no sound doctrinal basis in view of the fact that the Tibetan Buddhist pantheon is rife with female Buddhas, goddesses, dakinis, and other highly spiritual and enlightened women. Present times are characterised, especially in the West, by accomplished female academics and Tibetan Buddhist teachers, as well as prominent nuns. The yogini-tantras furthermore attest to the reverence and honour the male should afford to the female. Gender hierarchy and male dominance cause untold suffering and pain, especially devastating for female monastics, and is therefore both contradictory to Buddhist principles and to the norms of a progressive society. © © U Un ni iv ve er rs si it ty y o of f P Pr re et to or ri ia a v KEY WORDS Buddhism Gender bias Tibetan Buddhism Western Buddhist nuns Full ordination Bikshuni Ordination Enlightenment Compassion Jetsunma Tenzin Palmo Misogynism. © © U Un ni iv ve er rs si it ty y o of f P Pr re et to or ri ia a vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS  My supervisor, Dr. Jaco Beyers, for his continued support, interest, enthusiasm, and expertise.  Jetsunma Tenzin Palmo, for her time and generosity in granting me a lengthy interview, and for perusing parts of the text for accuracy.  The Western Tibetan Buddhist nuns who responded to the questionnaires, especially Venerable Bhikshuni Thubten Chodron and Venerable Bhikshuni Jampa Tsedroen who showed a keen interest in this research and generously provided additional information.  Theo de Vries, for his fine-toothed editing, and words of encouragement.  My children Alexander and Rebecca, for sacrificing time that could have been spent with them.  My husband, Pieter, for fetching and carrying library books, for finding rare and interesting books, and for his abundant systems of support. © © U Un ni iv ve er rs si it ty y o of f P Pr re et to or ri ia a vii DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to Jetsunma Tenzin Palmo who has served as an inspiration of wisdom, patience, and compassion in the female quest for enlightenment to thousands of women, Buddhist and non-Buddhist alike.

The Dolma Ling Nunnery and Institute hosted 46 nuns taking their 'Geshema' exams from August 15-26. The four-year 'geshe' degree is considered the highest academic degree in Tibetan Buddhism, the equivalent of a PhD. Far from being a monochromatic experience of dislocation and loss, the six-decade long exile in India has paradoxically proven to be an opportunity for Tibetan nuns to reconfigure their position in Tibetan society.