Equation of Light Speed

Journal of Applied Physics , 2021

Einstein's Special Relativity is based on a postulation that the light speed in vacuum is constant no matter the light sources and observers. Because light speed is very much faster than the speed of light source, it is nearly impossible to measure the light speed on a light source moving at a comparable speed. Since there is no solid proof yet that light speed is constant, it is fair to ask what if light speed is not constant. Based on Photon Inertia Transformation and Yangton and Yington Theory, Equation of Light Speed is proposed, such that Doppler Redshift can be explained by Acceleration Doppler Effect, and Event Horizon can be interpreted by the competition between Absolute Light Speed and star acceleration speed. Both of them can also be considered as the nature proofs of that light speed is not constant. In addition, if light speed is indeed constant, then interference shall be found in Michelson Morley Experiment even Aether doesn't exist. On the contrary, if light speed is not constant, then Einstein's Special Relativity shall not be true simply because of the wrong assumption, and Velocity Time Dilation cannot be true either. Furthermore, for the same reason, relativism could be totally false and Length Contraction could be induced from human's visual memory instead of Special Relativity. After all, it is the purpose of this review to give a sound answer to the question "What if light speed is not constant".

Henok Tadesse

In this paper, a new theoretical framework for absolute motion and the speed of light is presented. The new theoretical framework consists of two parts: 1. Constancy of phase velocity of light 2. Apparent Source Theory. The theory of constancy of phase velocity of light is a consequence of non-existence of the ether. Thus the phase velocity of light in vacuum is always constant c, irrespective of absolute or relative motion of the light source, the observer and the mirror, for uniform or accelerated motions. The constancy of phase velocity of light leads to a new Exponential Doppler Effect of light: f ' = f e V/c and λ' = λe-V/c , which fulfills the constant phase velocity condition : f ' λ ' = f e V/c λe-V/c = f λ = c. The Exponential Doppler Effect theory can also explain the Ives-Stilwell experiment. The Michelson-Morley disproved the ether hypothesis but failed to detect absolute motion, which was decisively detected by the Silvertooth experiment, in combination with the NASA CMBR anisotropy experiment. Absolute motion is not motion relative to the ether. According to Apparent Source Theory, the effect of absolute motion is to create an apparent change in the point of light emissionrelative to an inertial observer, in the reference frame of an absolutely moving inertial observer. In the case of the Michelson-Morley experiment, an apparent change in point of light emission relative to the observer/detector will create only a small fringe shift for the same reason that an actual/physical change in the source position (actual change in point of light emission) will result only in a small fringe shift. This is the small fringe shift observed in the original Michelson-Morley experiment and in the Miller experiments. A profound prediction of Apparent Source Theory regarding the phenomenon of stellar aberration is that the apparent change in star position in not in the same direction as the observer's velocity, but in the opposite direction ! Thus, an observer in absolute motion needs to tilt his telescope backwards, not forward, to see star light.A formulation of Apparent Source Theory for a non-inertial observer is also presented. For a non-inertial observer/detector, the light speed experiment is analyzed based on thefollowing principle.An imaginary inertial observer is assumed who will be at the same point and moving with the same velocity as the instantaneous velocity of the real accelerating observer at the instant of light detection. In other words, the real accelerating observer and the imaginary inertial observer will detect the light at the same point in space, simultaneously, while moving with the same instantaneous velocity.This general formulation ofApparent Source Theory is applied to analyze the Sagnac effect. The Sagnac effect is shown to be an acceleration effect, not an absolute motion effect. Apparent Source Theory is also applied to static electric, magnetic and gravitational sources. A qualitative analysis of Mercury perihelion advance is presented.It is proposed that magnetic field is a form of electric field as described by Weber's formula for electrostatic force between two charges.Weber's formula, which is a modification of Coulomb's formula, is adopted and combined with Apparent Source Theory, which may explain all electromagnetic phenomenon.Analogous Weber's formula for gravitation, which is a modification of Newton's law of gravitation, might solve some of the outstanding problems in physics, such as dark matter, dark energy and Pioneer anomaly. 2

IOSR Journal Of Applied Physics, 2025

A detailed study of light speed is presented based on Newtonian physics in which photon is treated as a particle having inertia properties in both photon generation and propagation processes. With a clear understanding of the definition of light speed and the reference of observation, on one hand, Wu's Spacetime Shrinkage Theory based on a hypothetical Yanton and Yington Theory can be applied successfully in interpretation of physical phenomena of photon associated with Absolute Light Speed observed at light source (also at stationary reference point), such as Cosmological Redshift, Gravitational Redshift, Light Deflection, Anisotropic light speed, as well as Hubble's Law and Expansion of the Universe. On the other hand, Equation of Light Speed and Equations of Doppler Shifts based on a logical analysis can also be implemented perfectly in explanation of physical phenomena of photon associated with Normal Light Speed observed at reference point, such as Axial Doppler Shift, Acceleration Doppler Shift and Transverse Doppler Shift, as well as Acceleration Doppler Effect and Event Horizon. As a result, Normal Light Speed observed at the reference point is not constant, which can change with the relative motion between light source and reference point. Even though Absolute Light Speed observed at light source is constant, it is true only if at the same gravitational field and aging of the universe.

The part I of this paper presented a novel Kinetic Theory of Relativity based upon action of energy by way of a thermodynamic analogy. The present part of the paper will discuss important experimental data relevant to this Kinetic Theory. The experiment will explain the result of Michelson's experiment by way of demonstrating the reason why the velocity of light remains the same with respect to Earth's orbital motion in all directions is because light moves having the Sun's gravitational field as the local reference frame and not the frame of Earth' orbital motion. In the course of explaining the reasons for the result of Michelson's experiment, we also find an explanation for the aberration of starlight. It will be shown that all presently known experiments are consistent with the theory presented in the original paper (Part I). Since the same principle of redundancy a fraction energy applies to all cases equally, the case of delay of disintegration of a fa...

Henok Tadesse, 2024

Many experiments have been performed over decades and centuries to investigate the problem of absolute motion and the speed of light, with reported results ranging from complete null results and very small fringe shifts to large first order effects. All existing classical and modern theories, including ether theory, emission theory, and special relativity theory, have failed to consistently explain all of these experiments. In this paper, a new model of motion and the speed of light is proposed that can consistently explain many of the known light speed experiments including the Michelson-Morley experiments, stellar aberration, moving source, moving observer and moving mirror experiments, the Lunar Laser Ranging experiment, the Bryan G Wallace Venus radar range data anomaly, the GPS, the Ives-Stilwell experiments, the Marinov, the Silvertooth , the Roland De Witte experiments, and the Sagnac effect, with few anomalies. The new model is proposed as follows. 1. Light always behaves as if it is emitted from the point where the source is relative to the observer/ detector at the instant of emission. 2. The speed of light in vacuum is always constant c relative to the observer/detector. 3. The effect of absolute motion of the observer/ detector is to create an apparent change in time of emission. 4.Light behaves as if it is reflected from the point in space where the mirror is/was at the moment of emission, with the speed of the reflected light equal to c ± 2v , where v is a component of the mirror velocity relative to the observer, which is perpendicular to the plane of the mirror. The new theory not only can explain why the Michelson-Morley experiments give null results, but also why the Marinov and the Silvertooth experiments give large first order effects. It also reconciles the Michelson-Morley experiment and the Sagnac effect. This paper also solves one of the profound puzzles in physics: the speed of electrostatic and gravitational fields. Is the speed of gravity finite or infinite? The answer is that the speed of gravity has dual nature: finite and infinite. Suppose that the Sun disappeared at t = 0. Would Sun"s gravity on Earth disappear instantaneously or with the delay of the speed of light? At t =-8.3 minutes, the Sun "anticipates" its own disappearance after 8.3 minutes and sends a zero gravitational field towards the Earth, which travels at the speed of light and reaches the Earth at t = 0, coinciding exactly with the instance of disappearance of the Sun!

2021

This paper studied why the speed of light is always constant regardless of the speed of the light source or the observer. I also studied that the theory of relativity can be described only with the basic properties of time and space without introducing the constancy of the speed of light as a basic principle. This logical process presupposes that the correct length change in the special theory of relativity is length expansion, not length contraction, and I have confirmed that length expansion is consistent with known relativistic experimental results.

New varying speed of light (VSL) theories as alternatives to the inflationary model of the universe are discussed and evidence for a varying speed of light reviewed. Work linked with VSL but primarily concerned with deriving Planck's black body energy distribution for a gas-like aether using Maxwell statistics is considered also. Doubly Special Relativity, a modification of special relativity to account for observer dependent quantum effects at the Planck scale, is introduced and it is found that a varying speed of light above a threshold frequency is a necessity for this theory.

2015

Most of the experiments and phenomena on the speed of light can be explained either by the ether theory or the emission theory. The emission theory can explain the Michelson-Morley experiment. The ether theory can explain the Sagnac and Michelson-Gale experiments, moving source experiments, the Silvertooth experiment and Bradely Stellar Aberration. Therefore, it is highly likely that a single theory can be formulated which is a fusion of the emission theory and the ether theory. Neither does the ether exist, nor is the ballistic theory correct. The emission theory and the ether theory are not wrong but incomplete separately. This paper proposes a theory which seamlessly fuses the two into one. The speed of light is constant relative to the apparent source. A consequence of this is that it is impossible to detect absolute motion by phase comparison using a single light source. The fallacy with the Michelson Morley experiment was that a single light source was used. Modern Michelson Morley experiments use two light sources but then compare frequencies (not phases) which will not change for co-moving source and observer [3]. All of the known light speed experiments agree with this theory. We call the new theory the Apparent Source Theory. A direct evidence of the two-source claim made above is Ronald de Witte's experimental detection of absolute motion by comparing the phases of two independent Cesium clock stabilized signal sources.

Henok Tadesse

A new model and theoretical framework of absolute motion and the speed of light is proposed in this paper. 1. For absolutely co-moving light source S and observer O, with uniform rectilinear motion, the effect of absolute motion is to create an apparent change in the position of the source relative to the observer. The apparent source, just as the real source, is at rest relative to the observer and the speed of light is constant relative to the apparent source. Therefore, the procedure of analysis of a light speed experiment in this case is to replace the real source by an apparent source and analyze the experiment by assuming that the speed of light is constant relative to the apparent source. Once the real source is replaced with an apparent source to account for absolute velocity, we assume emission theory in which the group velocity of light is constant relative to the (apparent) source and depends on mirror velocity. The position of the apparent source is determined by assuming the ether to calculate the time delay of light emitted by the source and detected directly by the observer and interpreting the change in time delay as being due to an apparent change in the source position relative to the observer, rather than as being a result of varying speed of light which would be the case if the ether existed. In this paper it is revealed that the ether doesn't exist but absolute motion does exist. 2. For all other cases/experiments in which the light source S, an observer A and mirrors have independent, arbitrary absolute and relative velocities, for uniform rectilinear motion and for accelerated motion, including rotation, the experiment is analyzed according to the following principle: an observer A who is at a given point relative to the light source, at a given instant of time, observes what a co-moving observer at that point is observing at that instant of time. A co-moving observer O is defined in this paper as an observer who is at a given point in the reference frame of the source at the instant of light emission and continues to move with the same velocity (magnitude and direction) as the velocity of the source at the instant of light emission. For example, to determine the time instant when light emitted by a source is observed by an arbitrary observer (A) with known initial position and motion (velocity and acceleration) at the instant of light emission, we find a point relative to the source where a co-moving observer O at that point observes light at the time instant that observer A is passing through that point. 3. The phase velocity of light is constant, independent of source, observer and mirror velocity. The group velocity of light is independent of source absolute velocity, but depends on observer absolute velocity and on mirror velocity. 4. A new law of Exponential Doppler effect of light is proposed as: λ' = λ eV/c and f ' = f e - V/c , where V is the source observer relative velocity. 5. Light has dual natures: local and non-local, constant (phase) velocity and variable ( group) velocity, behaving according to both ether (wave) theory and emission (particle) theory. Static electric and magnetic fields also have dual nature: finite and infinite speed of transmission 6. Inertia is electromagnetic radiation reaction. The speed of light is the universal limit on absolute velocities of all physical objects in the universe. The mass (inertia) increase of electrons with velocity is due to non-linear law of electromagnetic radiation power and radiation reaction. As the absolute velocity of a body approaches the speed of light, any further acceleration will result in or require increasingly infinite amounts of radiation power and radiation reaction. 7. Gravity is a difference between electrostatic attraction and repulsion forces. 8. Absolute velocity of an object is the resultant of its mass weighed velocities relative to all massive objects in the universe. The universal principle that applies to all light speed experiments is : an observer at a given point relative to the source, at a given instant of time , observes the same light phenomenon being observed by a co-moving observer at that point, at that instant of time. A co-moving observer is an observer that continues to move at the same velocity the source had at the instant of light emission. However, a more convenient procedure for experiments involving rectilinear motions is : 1. Replace the real source by an apparent source 2. Determine the velocity of the apparent source relative to the observer 3. Analyze the experiment by assuming that the speed of light is constant relative to the apparent source; i.e. once the real source is replaced by an apparent source , we apply (modified) emission theory in which the group velocity is constant relative to the apparent source and depends on mirror velocity, but the phase velocity is always constant. Physically ( intuitively ) the group velocity ( magnitude and direction) of light varies relative to the real source, due to absolute motion of the source. AST is a modified emission theory, a fusion between emission theory and ether theory. In the Sagnac experiment, the source appears farther away than its physical distance when looking in the backward direction and closer than its actual/ physical distance in the forward direction, relative to the detector. Physically this means that the velocity of light is c + Vabs in the backward direction and c - Vabs in the forward direction, relative to the source , hence a fringe shift at the detector. In the case of the Michelson-Morley experiment, an apparent change in the position of the light source relative the detector does not create a fringe shift, for the same reason that an actual ( physical ) change of the source position doesn't create any significant fringe shift. The group velocity of light relative to the source moving with absolute velocity Vabs is c - Vabs in the forward direction and c + Vabs in the backward direction. Therefore, the velocity of light relative to a stationary observer will be: (c - Vabs ) + Vabs = c and (c + Vabs ) - Vabs = c . The (group) velocity of light changes relative to the source in such a way that it will not be affected by source velocity.

2019

A gravitational theory and an experiment proposal to prove its ground are being suggested here. An objective analysis of the classical and the modern physics was given followed by what really are flaws in the theory of Special Rel-ativity as concluded by a simple thought experiment on length contraction and the removal of the unnecessary mass increase, because the effects of latter can be emulated by those of the time dilation. Thus, the work that is presented here will prove the entire Universe can be represented mathematically by using time dilation and classical physics only. Basically, it extends General Relativity by predicting the perihelion shift, the light bending, and the mass of the invisible Universe encompassing the visible one. Regarding the experiment, a wavelength meter in motion aboard the International Space Station is proposed to test directly the invariance of light speed as postulated by the Special Relativity. The aether by its definition is a substance having a unique reference frame that fills the whole Universe and serves as a medium for the propagation of light. If we extend the same idea by associating a reference frame to the center of a gravitational body with the same spin then we will have multiple graviton layers overlapping each other. Thus, the light speed will be relative to that spinning local frame of reference and to detect a change in light speed the observer will have to move against it. This can be done by sending a laser beam in the same direction of the moving apparatus and by measuring the difference in wavelength as we will further demonstrate. Thus, this work will prove the importance of the experiment proposal with the aforementioned theoretical findings which will lead to alternative fields of study and technologies after it is proven to be valid.