Rock-Cut Caves

The Archaeology of Bhakti II: Royal Bhakti, Local Bhakti, 2016

Among the earliest examples of Jain art and practice in Tamil Nadu are the rock-cut beds carved into the floors of natural caverns found across the state. Dating as early as the third and second centuries bce, these sites seem to emphasize the rigorous practices of Jain ascetics who occupied these relatively small, bare spaces. Unlike contemporary Buddhist monasteries (particularly in western India) that exhibit rock-cut beds carved within individual rooms and elevated from cave floors, the accommodations of Jain sites offer only a modicum of comfort for their residents. Indeed, at most Jain sites, the only modifications made to the rocky landscape include separation ridges between shallowly cut beds, drip ledges to divert rainwater away from the residence, and an occasional rock-cut pillow. 1 The Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions that are found at most of these early sites provide further evidence of activities associated with these spaces. Specifically, these records document the type of object given (an incised stone bed, a canopy woven from palm fronds, the cutting of a drip ledge) and the name and place of residence of the lay donor (Mahadevan 2003: 128-139). The occupation of the lay donor is also sometimes included and 1

A History of Hindu Architecture in India, 2022

Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures, 2016

Caves Q3 in ancient India were places of special relevance. Aside from offering natural shelter, they 5 were regarded as loci of supernatural powers and spiritual enhancement. Located at the nexi of 6 sacred geographies and often associated with local deities, caves were favored abodes by hermits 7 and renouncers. Elaborate rock-cut architectural structures were created for ascetics to use during the 8 Maurya period (322-185 BCE) with King Ashoka (304-232 BCE) being the first to endow 9 man-made caves to the Ajivika ascetics at Barabar Hill. The four Barabar caves located in a rocky 10 outcrop in the Gaya district of Bihar preserve distinctive plans with rectangular spaces attached to 11 a circular, hut-shaped room at one end. The cave interiors are plain and flawlessly polished in 12 a manner that alters light and sound. The only decoration appears at the entrance of the so-called 13 Lomas Rishi cave where a portal motif with an architrave embellished by elephants and stupas is 14 engraved in the living rock Q5 .

History Today: The Journal of the Indian History & Culture Society, XIX: 216–231, 2018

South Asian Studies, 2006

Advent of Brahmanism in India is a complex process. The religion itself went through many transitions in the early centuries of Common Era. It faced great competition from other established religious traditions, such as Buddhism. Its arrival on the western coast of India was hitherto attributed to the late 5 th /6 th centuries CE on the basis of some cave temples and isolated images. This article presents the discovery of some early Brahmanical caves in coastal Maharashtra, India, and looks at the course of the journey of Brahmanism in a new light. It appears that the beginning of Brahmanical sects was earlier than what was thought before. The architecture as well as sculptural elements and narrative panels including their iconographic and art historical analysis are discussed in detail. It also talks about the geo-political settings of the early historic coastal Maharashtra.

Architecture is the art and science of enclosing and decorating the space created by nature. In terms of built heritage, it has been the most dominating art in Indian history and all the other modes of art are sometimes considered as accessories to it. Especially, temples constitute the most significant architectural forms in India. The temple architecture is simply not a representation of the skill of the architect or a craftsperson, but it is the realization and culmination of the religious concept. It is an embodiment of devotion which inspires their existence in a visible form. T. V. Sairam has aptly said "They are the symbols of art and religion". Malati Mahajan in his book 'A gate to Ancient Indian Architecture' writes that with the beginning of the second phase of urbanization sixteen Mahajanapadas came into existence. The substantial archaeological relics provide ample evidences about the circumstances of that period. The growth of Jainism and Buddhism were two popular sects which were briskly taking over the Brahmanism during that period. The kingdom itself protected the Buddhist monasteries, where trader got shelter and sometimes, probably deposited their money. Gradually, it created a vast network among the traders of India and outside. The chaityas and viharas began to flourish along with the ancient trade routes. Before the advent of Buddha the perishable and less durable materials such as wood, bamboo, brick, reed, cloth and clay were used. The solidarity of the rock carved down by the artisans who were professional. The arduous job of creating dwellings inside the stone by chiselling was not an easy task though the carving of the rock was based on the earlier wooden prototypes of the contemporary region. It is to the Buddhism that we owe the earliest monumental architecture still more or less intact in South Asia, consisting of mounded reliquaries or stupas, monasteries and rock-cut sanctuaries. As per Christopher Tadgell, "the great transformation in Buddhism was accelerated from the 3rd century B.C". The beginning of earlier rock-cut cave architecture goes back to the Mauryan period.

Rajesh S.V., Abhayan G.S., Ajit Kumar and E.R. Ilahi eds. The Archaeology of Burials: Examples from Indian Subcontinent, 2019