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Scientia et Fides
Meaning" and "religion" appear as deeply interlinked concepts in modern thought. Theology has often discovered religious faith as a "source of meaning" and philosophy of religion has tried to better describe that link to show how religion provides meaning, or is built through structures of meaning, or is a form of "meaning construction". Cognitive approach may add new perspectives to better explain this implication. Recent attempts combine scientific methods and philosophical analysis to show how meaning is built and works, and how religion provides a specific sort of meaning, distinct from other forms in which meaning displays itself. Describing religion in terms of "meaning building" helps to better understand its specific role and function in the human mind, and offers a more balanced view on its cognitive dimensions. Different attempts to connect religion and meaning are reviewed in this paper in order to offer a complement to the new scientific study of religion.
Within existential philosophy, an individual develops a model of the world through experience and rationality. This model of the world can be disrupted by experiences that challenge the validity of an individual's model. The Meaning Maintenance Model has shown that individuals respond to this disruption through the processes of revision, reinterpretation, and reaffirmation. In the construction of a model of the world, an individual is free to construct his or her own, unique model of the world. However, humans exist within a society. Society contributes to the individual's construction of a model of the world by providing knowledge from both religious and secular sources that can be incorporated into the individual's model. In the following paper, I will describe how individuals construct meaning from societal sources and why meaning derived from religious sources of meaning are more resistant to the disruption of meaning that the Meaning Management Model describes.
2009
This thesis explores religious faith from an integrated interdisciplinary standpoint that draws heavily on Georges Bataille's religious theory, Jacques Lacan's psychoanalytical framework (as distilled through the lens of Slavoj Žižek), and Pascal Boyer's evolutionary model of cognitive inference systems, in order to recast Paul Tillich's faith dynamics in terms of a contemporary critical theory of religion. Focusing on Tillich's understanding of faith as engaging with a depth of meaning, a hypothesis is presented that casts religious faith as a complex natural human phenomenon that functions as a species of generative human 'depth of meaning' engagement within particular hermeneutical frameworks with a focus on the 'Other' (transcendence / the infinite) that were born from the communal symbolic-linguistic system of meaning making that arose with human evolutionary development as a by-product of several cognitive inference systems and as a result of a lost intimacy with immanence. This hypothesis is explicated throughout the thesis in defence of a non-religious analysis of religious faith which is non-reductive and which avoids caricature. Tillich's understanding of faith as the central phenomenon in the personal life of human beings is recast as one form of human 'depth of meaning' engagement, with religious faith understood as providing a mechanism for accepting a certain intra-systematic coherence and a volitional (trust) commitment to an intra-systematic being (God) or principle deemed extra-systematic but inscribed within the particular symbolic universe in which the interpretive framework operates. The historical dialectical hypothesis developed throughout the thesis is tested against contemporary manifestations of religious faith, particularly of a violent geo-political nature, and various implications are drawn out that demonstrate the fecundity and importance of the hypothesis, particularly in terms of a point of departure for further research.
Method & Theory in the Study of Religion, 2018
This paper focuses on two contrasting approaches to the theory of linguistic meaning and asks how they color a range of issues of interest to scholars of religion. The so-called truth-conditional approach makes truth basic. It trades on the thought that we sometimes or perhaps often know what someone has said when we know what it would be for what she has said to be true. The other approach pegs meaning to how expressions and sentences are used in communicative situations. Dummett and Davidson are front and center. Davidson is of course in one sense a champion of truth-conditional semantics, but, over the issues I have in view, his case is instructively mixed. This discussion leads us toward an account of linguistic meaning which elevates over truth a family of concepts associated with use, including verification, justification, and pragmatic success.
Literary Herald, 2022
In this paper, a modest attempt has been made to expound and evaluate the criterion of meaning and its relevance in the domains of philosophy of science and the philosophy of religion. The need for a medium of communication which is referred to as a "language" is equally felt in the domains of science, religion, aesthetics, and morality. No single theory of meaning can universally apply to all the domains of life. Hence, there remains the problem of finding and applying one criterion of the meaning of language. Language is very much elastic, and it can be used in many ways. Hence, it leads to diversified functions of words both in science & religion. Adumbrated views regarding the criterion of meaning gather momentum as a key concept in philosophies of science and religion.
Religion is in disrepute in our times. It is variably seen as a cause of conflicts and wars, as a body of illogical and superstitious beliefs and practices, as a refuge for the weak and the unaccomplished, as a bastion of male supremacy and control of the masses, as a repository of unscientific and superstitions beliefs and practices, and as a relic of the past. From one perspective, all these critical views of religion are accurate. However, a dispassionate, objective review of the origins, teachings, and accomplishments of the main religions of the world reveals that every race and group of people has a religious and spiritual orientation and history. All religions address physical, psychological, social, and spiritual aspects of human nature and prescribe moral and ethical principles that govern human relationships and conduct. All the universal codes of moral and ethical conduct, as put forward by the main religions of the world, are in fundamental agreement. All religions concur that life is sacred; that human life is a process of actualization of our inherent potential qualities of body, mind, and spirit; and that the main purpose of religion is to bring meaning, direction, harmony, cooperation, beauty, and civility to the life of the individual and society alike. The examples of the lives of the Founders of the major religions of the world are outstanding unique testimonies to the fundamental nobility, integrity, universality, and unity of their teachings. This paper offers an integrative perspective on the phenomenon of religion, its progressive nature commensurate with the ever-evolving collective development of humanity, and its fundamental harmony with science. The paper also analyses the main reasons for the decline of religion and its misguided applications. In its analysis of the nature and purpose of religion, the paper draws heavily from the teachings of the Baha’i Faith.
ABSTRACT The study of religion is by its nature and by its history multi-disciplinary. The contribution of new research paradigms such as cognitive, evolutionary, and experimental approaches in the study of religion have called attention to a much neglected but certainly fundamental aspect of human culture – the mind. Recent work in cognitive psychology applied to religion, especially that of Boyer (2001) and Atran (2003) – both strongly influenced by Sperber (1996, 2000) – has made a strong case for the claim that practices which, bundled together, have come to be classified as “religious”, can be explained in terms of human (mind) evolution. In cognitive perspective, the building of religious concepts requires mental systems and all sort of specific human capacities (such as intuitiveness, or a tendency to attend to some counterintuitive concepts, among the others). Hence, assuming that “humanity not only creates religion but is also created by it” (McNamara 2009), we can explain religion by describing how these various capacities get recruited, how they contribute to the features of religion in many different cultures, with particular reference to the human capacity to represent agency and ontological shifting into the environment – or, in other terms, to generate meta-representations, to engage in meta-cognition.
Science has always asked questions about order in nature, human existence, and society. Nature manifests many different forms of order, for example, galaxies, planetary systems, geological formations, meteorological phenomena, chemical compounds, organisms, tissues, cells, molecules and atoms. Human society and culture also manifest order, for example, social systems, political institutions, languages, works of art, and scientific theories. The paradigm of self-organizing systems attempts to approach the problem of emerging order by developing a theory that views reality, both natural and cultural, as a systemic phenomenon. There may be said to be three levels of emergent order: mechanical systems, biological systems, and systems of meaning. A system of meaning is a human society or culture. It operates in order to construct meaning. The boundary of the system is at the same time always a border between meaning and meaninglessness. The uttermost boundary of the system of meaning builds a common horizon of meaning, a worldview, shared values, and a basic understanding of what is real, true, good, and beautiful. It is this "life world horizon" that makes mutual understanding, cooperative action, and a shared life within society possible. Everything outside this uttermost boundary of shared meaning and value simply does not "fit" in the world. It is marked as "impossible," "evil," "abnormal," "irrational," "barbaric," and so on. The way in which a system of meaning differentiates itself from meaninglessness, chaos, and disorder constitutes the function of religion. Ideological conflict is a result of functionally equivalent communication on the religious level. Religion is important because boundaries between 2 self and other, meaning and meaninglessness must be drawn in every instance of systemic and subsystemic order. Drawing these boundaries requires a specific form of communication, a "boundary" discourse that may be characterized as religious communication. The pragmatics of boundary discourse are proclamation, narrative repetition, ritual representation, temporal orientation towards founding events, and inclusion/exclusion.
In A New Science of Religion (eds. Gregory Dawes and James Maclaurin) Routeledge, 2013
Religious traditions are both internally complex and extraordinarily diverse. This has made difficult the longstanding task of defining religion as an object of study. We stand on the threshold of a new era of scientific study of religion spearheaded by cognitive scientists, developing new and experimentally testable models of the human mind. So how should scientists understand religion? Will recent advances in these sciences provide a new definition or at least a better way of interpreting the plethora of existing definitions? In this chapter, we set out the history of debate about the nature of religion, describing the schemes scholars have devised for characterising existing religions. We then survey a number of scientific results that promise to explain aspects of the complexity and diversity of extant and extinct religions. We explore a new approach to taxonomising religions based on the new science and drawing on established principles of biological taxonomy. We compare the characterisations of religion that stem from the existing scholarly tradition with those flowing from the new science. We conclude that the new scientific approach is more likely to enhance our understanding of religion than are earlier theories based on conceptual analysis.
2020
In the modern age, religion seems to have abandoned its role as a symbol of meaning to the extent that, conversely, the scientific, rational view of the world has taken over this task. Apparently, there is an exclusive relationship between the two that makes a peaceful and equal coexistence more or less impossible. In this volume of the series "Philosophy and Psychology in Dialogue", Martin Klüners and Jörn Rüsen analyse the role religion plays in human existence and life. While Klüners interprets religion historically as a "pre-scientific" science of the soul and sees the antagonism between the reality principle and the pleasure principle as causally responsible for the opposition between reason and faith, Rüsen locates religion within historical thinking. Like history itself, religion appears as a significant factor in the cultural orientation of human life practice.
2013
Cultural Studies of Science Education, 2013
Epistemological constructions are central considerations in vivisecting an expressed conflict between science and religion. It is argued that the conflict thesis is only meaningful when examined from a specific socio-historical perspective. The dialectical relation between science and religion should therefore be considered at both a macro and micro level. At the macro level broad changes in the meaning of science and religion occur; whereas at the micro level individuals immersed within particular expressions of these concepts socially construct, re-construct, and appropriate meaning. Specific attention is given to expressions of meaning surrounding sacred texts in this dialectical relation. Two ontological forms of meaning are examined through a qualitative content analysis of 16 interviews with individuals from various religious affiliation and academic attainment. A monistic ontology constructs textual meaning as facts that have the qualities of being both self-evident and certain. Potential tension arises with scientific discourse given empirical evidence may either confirm or conflict with scriptural interpretation. The pluralistic ontology constructs textual meaning with multiple categories, which in turn have the qualities of being mediated by human consciousness and uncertain. The science-religion dichotomy appears to be less susceptible to conflict given the uncertainty embedded in this construction of scriptural meaning. This paper implies that truth as correspondence may not necessitate the conflict thesis.
Archives de sciences sociales des religions, 2005
One reasonable response to the vast enterprise of comparing religions, their institutions and the behaviour of their followers is a nagging doubt: after all this, is there much difference among the world religions, or indeed between the world religions on one hand, and the innumerable polytheistic and pagan forms across the planet? Recent work in cognitive psychology applied to religion, especially that of Boyer and Atran (Boyer, 2001; Atran, 2003), both strongly influenced by Sperber (Sperber, 1996), has made a strong case for the claim that practices which, taken together, have come to be classified and bundled together as "religious", can be explained in terms of human evolution. Part of their case rests on the observation of constants across vast distances in time, space and language, while another part rests on experimental evidence from cognitive and evolutionary psychology. In this paper I explain why social scientists cannot afford to ignore this work. 2 Social scientists tend to regard the use of evolutionary explanations of social phenomena with much distrust. Indeed, sociology itself as a discipline was built to a large extent on the rejection of versions of evolution. The reasons for this are several. Firstly, the word refers to a process whereby an institution or set of practices are suitable to the functioning of society-it is therefore regarded as a functionalist argument and vulnerable to the usual criticisms of functionalism-among which are functionalism's alleged prejudice in favour of the preservation of order over change, and its use of effects to explain causes. Secondly, because of the perverse, and perverted, history of social Darwinism and the importance of hostility to it in the history of sociology, evolution carries connotations of a concern with differences among human racial categories, even though these connotations are quite foreign to Darwinian evolution (if not precisely to The cognitive approach to understanding religion Archives de sciences sociales des religions, 131-132 | 2006
2009
This study examines philosophically the main theories and methodological assumptions of the field known as the cognitive science of religion (CSR). The study makes a philosophically informed reconstruction of the methodological principles of the CSR, indicates problems with them, ...
Recent research has demonstrated that academic and popular distinctions between 'religion' and 'spirituality' are unfounded. Each concept can mean many different things, with considerable overlap between the two terms, and the distinctions that are made are primarily theological and/or political. Emic distinctions in this area can hinder etic understanding and obscure the complexity and diversity of phenomena. It is argued that recognising that 'religious' and 'spiritual' are part of the same broad category does not go far enough and that religious/spiritual worldviews are also not fundamentally different to other worldviews. They are socially-constructed 'Meaning Systems', which help practitioners create their own worlds and give purpose to their lives. These ‘Meaning Systems’ are constructed out of the cultural and social resources available to an individual. All humans use their experiences to create the best mental models of reality that they can. The same psychological and sociological processes are involved in the creation of 'nonreligious' belief systems as in the creation of 'religious' ones. Recognising that both 'religion' and 'nonreligion' are part of the same human efforts to understand ourselves and our world can enrich and assist the study of each.
2021
In this MA thesis I outline a mapping of the so-called Cognitive Science of Religion (CSR), by focusing on the works of three scholars: Stewart Guthrie, Pascal Boyer, and Ara Norenzayan. Despite the differences and the divergences among them, these authors are linked by the aim of exploring the evolved cognitive kit that might explain the prevalence of certain religious ideas and practices the world over. The humankind started to think about the existence of some sort of supernatural agent a long time ago – during the Upper Palaeolithic, following the archaeological reconstruction by Steven Mithen. Moreover, it has done so continuatively in history and in every corner of the globe. This fairly puzzling fact has been deepened by many different thinkers, each of whom has so far delved into his/her own field of research. From the 1980s, ahead of Edward Wilson’s attitude of consilience, more and more theorists have begun to realize the need to braid those perspectives in order to clarify such a complex phenomenon as religion.
2020
From the world on go, man has been asking questions on the origin and formation of religion. These questions are as a result of the quest in man to understand his object of worship, the Supreme Being or the ultimate reality. Hence it has been ascertained that man is homo-religiosus and as such is religiously incurable. It has also been established that people have faith because beliefs make sense in so far as they hold value and are comprehensible. This is also evidenced in the level and quest for people's religiosity in the present dispensation. Religion as it is practiced today developed from theories which are posited by scholars in trying to give their explanations to it. Among those scholars are Edward Burnett Tylor, James George Frazer and Sigmund Freud who made their points from both substantive theory which is focusing on the value of religion for its adherent and functional perspectives which is more interested with what religion does. Their theories were not without some influence from their intellectual backgrounds. It is germane to posit that in trying a work of this nature, the paper makes use of library and internet sources in its research. The paper therefore finds that religion is an aspect of life that is very important to human life, hence the quest for every scholar to make a contribution to it. It concludes that faith and believes arise from the normal function of the human mind of which the human minds acquire, generate, and transmit religious thoughts, practices, and schemas by means of ordinary cognitive capacities.
Journal for the Cognitive Science of Religion, 2016
I review the book 'Religion Explained? The Cognitive Science of Religion After 25 Years'. I give a thematic overview and critically discuss some recurrent ideas.
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