Repetitive thought as a moderator of the impact of control

Psychological Bulletin, 2008

The author reviews research showing that repetitive thought (RT) can have constructive or unconstructive consequences. The main unconstructive consequences of RT are (a) depression, (b) anxiety, and (c) difficulties in physical health. The main constructive consequences of RT are (a) recovery from upsetting and traumatic events, (b) adaptive preparation and anticipatory planning, (c) recovery from depression, and (d) uptake of health-promoting behaviors. Several potential principles accounting for these distinct consequences of RT are identified within this review: (a) the valence of thought content, (b) the intrapersonal and situational context in which RT occurs, and (c) the level of construal (abstract vs. concrete processing) adopted during RT. Of the existing models of RT, it is proposed that an elaborated version of the control theory account provides the best theoretical framework to account for its distinct consequences.

Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 2012

Repetitive thought (RT) -attentive, prolonged, or frequent thought about oneself and one's world -plays an important role in many models of psychological and physical ill health (e.g., rumination and worry), as well as models of recovery and well-being (e.g., processing and reminiscing). In these models, repetitive thought is typically treated as stable or trait-like. In contrast, episodic RT reflects what people have "on their minds" at a particular point in time. In four studies, young women (N = 94), college students (N = 166), first-year law students (N = 73), and older adults (N = 174) described their episodic RT, which was then rated for qualities including valence, purpose, and theme. Episodic RT valence was associated with mood and depressive symptoms both between (Studies 1-4) and within people (Studies 3-4), and it mediated the effects of dispositional coping through emotional approach (Study 1). The effect of episodic RT valence in turn was moderated by other properties of episodic RT, including purpose, "trait" valence, and theme . The study of episodic RT complements that of trait RT and allows for observations of how RT and psychological adjustment change in concert and in context, as well as examining the RT qualities that are not reflected in trait measures affecting adjustment.

Although repetitive thought (RT) styles such as worry, rumination, and processing correlate positively, they have divergent effects on well-being, suggesting important dimensional variation. In Study 1, multidimensional scaling identified 2 dimensions—positive versus negative content valence and searching versus solving purpose—among students (N 978) who completed standard RT measures. In Study 2, students (N 100) sorted 25 descriptions of RT. Multidimensional scaling identified 4 dimensions, including valence and purpose. Content valence associated with valenced affect; solving associated with less aroused affect and less polarized appraisals of thought topics. In Study 3, valence and purpose of RT descriptions by women in a breast cancer prevention trial (N 62) predicted concurrent affect and psychological and physical well-being. The process of thinking attentively, repetitively, or frequently about oneself and one's world forms the core of a number of different models of adjustment and maladjustment. Some models propose that this process, repetitive thought (RT), interferes with problem solving and mood repair, disrupts physiology, and may lead to physical disease. However, others propose that RT produces insight, positive changes in appraisal and meaning, and reduction in physiological disruption and health problems. The present research represents an empirical integration of these two views. We begin by briefly reviewing several types of RT and then propose dimensions along which RT might vary. We then present three empirical studies that demonstrate multidimensionality of RT on a trait and a state level and relate RT dimensions to personality, affect, adjustment, and health. Maladaptive RT Worry, rumination, and depressive rumination are characteristic of RT that increases negative affect, interferes with cognitive function and problem solving, and disrupts physiology and health. Worry typically consists of an internal linguistic focus on potential future negative events that is difficult to dismiss and is uncontrollable (Borkovec, Shadick, & Hopkins, 1991). It may develop as a means by which people try to increase control, certainty, and safety with regard to potential negative events, and personality correlates of worry include perfectionism and intolerance of un

Cognitive Therapy and …, 2000

Worry and depressive rumination have both been described as unproductive, repetitive thought which contributes to anxiety or depression, respectively. It was hypothesized that repetitive thought, rather than its specific forms, is a general concomitant of negative mood. Study 1 was a cross-sectional test of the hypothesis. Repetitive thought was positively correlated with anxiety and depression in students (n ϭ 110). In patients (n ϭ 40), repetitive thought was positively correlated with anxiety and depression, and rumination was also specifically correlated with depression. Study 2 was a prospective test of the hypothesis. In students (n ϭ 90), there were significant crosssectional relationships between repetitive thought and both anxiety and depression. In addition, repetitive thought at least partially predicted maintenance of anxious symptoms. Phenomena such as goal interruption, failures of emotional processing, and information processing may lead to repetitive thought which increases negative mood states, including both anxiety and depression.

International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 2008

The current paper provides an updated review of repetitive negative thinking as a transdiagnostic process. It is shown that elevated levels of repetitive negative thinking are present across a large range of Axis I disorders and appear to be causally involved in the maintenance of emotional problems. As direct comparisons of repetitive negative thinking between different disorders (e.g., GAD-type worry and depressive rumination) have generally revealed more similarities than differences, it is argued that repetitive negative thinking is characterized by the same process across disorders, which is applied to a disorder-specific content. On the other hand, there is some evidence that-within given disorders-repetitive negative thinking can be reliably distinguished from other forms of recurrent cognitions, such as obsessions, intrusive memories or functional forms of repeated thinking. An agenda for future research on repetitive negative thinking from a transdiagnostic perspective is presented.

Cognitive Therapy and Research, 2011

A tendency to ruminate or repetitively think about depressed mood is associated with increased perseveration in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (Davis and Nolen-Hoeksema in Cogn Ther Res 24:699-711, 2000). In the current study, we used a reversal learning task to determine if trait ruminators' perseveration could be driven, at least in part, by a cognitive process called reversal learning, that is, the ability to learn from feedback of the need to reverse stimulus-reward associations. We also examined whether reversal learning would be generally associated with repetitive thought regardless of whether it is maladaptive (depressive brooding, anger rumination, and worry) or adaptive (intellectual selfreflection, and depressive reflection). The results suggest that a tendency to engage in repetitive thought, regardless of its adaptiveness, is related to difficulties reversing stimulus-reward associations but not to the ability to initially learn reward associations.

The current paper provides an updated review of repetitive negative thinking as a transdiagnostic process. It is shown that elevated levels of repetitive negative thinking are present across a large range of Axis I disorders and appear to be causally involved in the maintenance of emotional problems. As direct comparisons of repetitive negative thinking between different disorders (e.g., GAD-type worry and depressive rumination) have generally revealed more similarities than differences, it is argued that repetitive negative thinking is characterized by the same process across disorders, which is applied to a disorder-specific content. On the other hand, there is some evidence that-within given disorders-repetitive negative thinking can be reliably distinguished from other forms of recurrent cognitions, such as obsessions, intrusive memories or functional forms of repeated thinking. An agenda for future research on repetitive negative thinking from a transdiagnostic perspective is presented.

Assessment, 2017

Worry, rumination, and obsessive thinking are theorized to differ on temporal orientation, positive perceived function, degree of intrusiveness, and discordance with one’s self-concept. However, prior findings with respect to such differences may be due to method variance of the measures used and/or inclusion of items confounded by diagnostic symptoms. Accurately capturing differences between types of perseverative thought linked to psychopathology and understanding whether such aspects are common across disorders or specific to some may be important to designing effective treatments for them. Two studies are presented detailing the development and validation of the Perseverative Cognitions Questionnaire (PCQ). The PCQ is a 45-item self-report measure that assesses six dimensional characteristics of worry, rumination, and obsessive thinking previously found to discriminate these thought styles: Lack of Controllability, Preparing for the Future, Expecting the Worst, Searching for Cau...

Cognitive Therapy and Research, 2010

Page 1. ORIGINAL ARTICLE Generalizability of Repetitive Thought: Examining Stability in Thought Content and Process Abbey R. Roach Æ Charlotte E. Salt Æ Suzanne C. Segerstrom Published online: 6 February 2009 Ó Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2009 ...

Scientific Reports, 2021

Although central to well-being, functional and dysfunctional thoughts arise and unfold over time in ways that remain poorly understood. To shed light on these mechanisms, we adapted a "think aloud" paradigm to quantify the content and dynamics of individuals' thoughts at rest. Across two studies, external raters hand coded the content of each thought and computed dynamic metrics spanning duration, transition probabilities between affective states, and conceptual similarity over time. Study 1 highlighted the paradigm's high ecological validity and revealed a narrowing of conceptual scope following more negative content. Study 2 replicated Study 1's findings and examined individual difference predictors of trait brooding, a maladaptive form of rumination. Across individuals, increased trait brooding was linked to thoughts rated as more negative, past-oriented and selffocused. Longer negative and shorter positive thoughts were also apparent as brooding increased, as well as a tendency to shift away from positive conceptual states, and a stronger narrowing of conceptual scope following negative thoughts. Importantly, content and dynamics explained independent variance, accounting for a third of the variance in brooding. These results uncover a realtime cognitive signature of rumination and highlight the predictive and ecological validity of the think aloud paradigm applied to resting state cognition. Contemplated upon by early Buddhists and later by William James, the stream of thought, or consciousness, is an obscure but ubiquitous aspect of our waking life 1. Although dynamics are a central feature of conscious experience, static methodologies such as retrospective recall and experience sampling have dominated our mainstream understanding of human thought. As a result, relatively little is known about the way thoughts arise and unfold over time, especially during idle time when left to our own musings 2. The dynamics of thought may offer unique insight into the relationship between mental life and mental health. Indeed, although repetitive thinking may be beneficial at times 3,4 , rumination and worry are both characterized by maladaptive repetitive thinking, a transdiagnostic construct fueling maladaptive outcomes across multiple diagnostic categories 5,6. Rumination in particular (especially the brooding facet) may signify a maladaptive form of coping involving negative mood with detrimental effects on the onset, length, and severity of depressive symptoms 7-9. According to our Dynamic Neurocognitive Framework, rumination can be considered a form of non-deliberate thinking guided by high "automatic" constraints that limit the conceptual scope and dynamics of thought 10-12. Automatically constrained thoughts may feel "sticky" because they are pulled by salient affective or sensory