GHOSTS STORIES IN SOZOMEN'S ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY

There is a basic traditional pattern that underlies transculturally almost all the rites of initiation in the history of human civilisation. Scholars use the terms “initiatory scenario” or “initiatory structure” for this standard outline of ritual steps. The basic initiatory scenario is divided into three main phases: preparation, voyage, and rebirth. The first stage, the preparation, is the preliminary phase in which the main frame and parameters of the initiation are set. The novice or initiand is detached from his everyday milieu and undergoes various rites of purification and spiritual reinforcement. The second stage, the voyage, forms the core of the experience of the initiation and determines its outcome. The initiand is given the mission to travel to a faraway location, an otherworld which lies beyond the ordinary sphere of profane society and emblematises the space of the Sacred. The initiand’s mission is a katabasis to the netherworld, a passage into the spiritual dimension of the beyond, and represents a virtual death. This long stage is interspersed with numerous ordeals. The third stage of the initiatory scenario is identified with rebirth and represents the subject’s come-back to the ordinary world as a new being. The scenario of initiation was already exploited as a literary framework in the ancient world. The age-old epics of ancient Mesopotamia ("Descent of Inanna", "Gilgamesh") develop a storyline following the typical phases of the initiatory experience. In ancient Greek literature, Odysseus, the emblematic protagonist of the voyage myth and distant descendant of Gilgamesh, may be viewed as an initiatory hero. The Odyssey can be read as a vast mystic narrative, revolving around the central experience of the hero’s descent to the netherworld, the Nekyia, significantly placed at the very middle of the epic. Two other literary genres exploit the initiatory scenario as a basis for their plots and narratives. Aristophanic Old Comedy often involves voyages into otherworlds and superhuman ordeals for the acquisition of a hidden power or knowledge. The most mystical work of the Aristophanic oeuvre is undoubtedly the "Frogs"; its protagonist, the god Dionysus, undergoes a multi-levelled initiation, which combines the standard transcultural scheme with specific elements of the Eleusinian rituals. Other Aristophanic comedies ("Birds", "Peace", "Knights") also involve extensive scenarios of initiation. Graeco-Roman novels make extensive use of the initiatory structure as a basis for their plots. They organise the adventures of the characters according to the typical tripartite scheme of the initiatory scenario, and incorporate many incidents and plot elements which reflect the traditional ordeals of the initiand in mystic rituals. The underlying pattern of initiation gives greater spiritual depth to the story of the heroes’ life and resonates on a profound psychological level of the audience, affording more excitement and satisfaction in the process of reading. In Apuleius' "Metamorphoses", the protagonist, Lucius, has the yearning for the transcendent, the desire to infiltrate into the numinous beyond, but his craving has assumed an erroneous and misleading form. Instead of trying to connect with the spiritual world through mystic initiation and the respected Isiac religion, Lucius turns towards magic and the occult. As a result, he is identified with the animal of Seth, the symbol of evil, and suffers many hardships. In the end, he becomes an adherent of Isis and is fully metamorphosed through his initiation into divine gnosis. Similarly, in the "Historia Apollonii Regis Tyri", Apollonius is spiritually gifted but cannot properly handle his inclination to secret knowledge. Because of his errors and transgressions, he is submitted to a long and painful process of initiatory ordeals, at the end of which he attains the true spirituality and gnosis.

The New Alexandria Library of Texas + (the old publisher)- London :Richard Bentley of New Burlington Street -" Publisher in Ordinary to Her Majesty", 1850

The Phantom World by Henry Christmas, translated from the work of Augustine Calmet, presents an in-depth Christian examination of supernatural phenomena as understood within various cultural and historical contexts. Structured as a comprehensive treatise, the book investigates a broad spectrum of apparitions, spirit encounters, angelic and demonic manifestations, sorcery, and otherworldly beings like vampires and revenants. By employing Christian theological frameworks alongside scriptural exegesis, it aims to both validate and critique accounts of the supernatural found in the Old and New Testaments, as well as in ancient Judaic, Greco-Roman, and Islamic traditions. A key focus of the work is on angelology and demonology, analyzing documented appearances of good and bad angels within biblical and extrabiblical sources. The book scrutinizes theological perspectives on these beings and explores their supposed interventions in the mortal realm. It contrasts Christian views on apparitions and possessions with those of other faiths and philosophical schools, particularly examining pagan practices such as oracular prophecy, spirit summoning, and magical rites from the cultures of Egypt, Chaldea, Greece, and Rome. The text also delves into demon possession and exorcism, presenting case studies and theological arguments surrounding possession, sorcery, and the power of faith in combating dark forces. By comparing biblical accounts with folk beliefs, the author addresses the theological implications and moral interpretations of these phenomena, concluding with a Christian critique of non-Christian practices. Furthermore, the work extends to cultural beliefs about the afterlife and revenants, exploring traditions of the undead, vampires, and restless spirits in European folklore and analyzing the Christian perspective on these legends. Finally, the treatise offers philosophical reflections on the nature and possibility of supernatural appearances, confronting objections with theological replies and discussing explanations for the manifestation of spirits within Christian, Jewish, and Islamic doctrine. With its meticulous approach to a wide range of supernatural topics, The Phantom World serves as both an apologetic and scholarly work on Christian supernatural philosophy, presenting readers with a historical and theological lens through which to understand the mystery of spirits and the a Table of Contents I. The Appearance of Good Angels Proven by the Books of the Old Testament . . . 37 II. The Appearance of Good Angels Proven by the Books of the New Testament . . . 38 III. Under What Form Have Good Angels Appeared? . . . 41 IV. Opinions of the Jews, Christians, Mahometans, and Oriental Nations Concerning the Apparitions of Good Angels . . . 44 V. Opinion of the Greeks and Romans on the Apparitions of Good Genii . . . 47 VI. The Apparition of Bad Angels Proven by the Holy Scriptures—Under What Form They Have Appeared . . . 50 VII. Of Magic . . . 57 VIII. Objections to the Reality of Magic . . . 61 IX. Reply to the Objections . . . 63 X. Examination of the Affair of Hocque, Magician . . . 67 XI. Magic of the Egyptians and Chaldeans . . . 70 XII. Magic Among the Greeks and Romans . . . 73 XIII. Examples Which Prove the Reality of Magic . . . 75 XIV. Effects of Magic According to the Poets . . . 81 XV. Of the Pagan Oracles . . . 83 XVI. The Certainty of the Event Predicted is Not Always Proof That the Prediction Comes from God . . . 86 XVII. Reasons Which Lead Us to Believe that Most Ancient Oracles Were Impositions by Priests and Priestesses Claiming Divine Inspiration . . . 89 XVIII. On Sorcerers and Sorceresses, or Witches . . . 93 XIX. Instances of Sorcerers and Witches Being, as They Said, Transported to the Sabbath . . . 98 XX. Story of Louis Gaufredi and Magdalen de la Palud, Who Claimed to Be Sorcerer and Sorceress . . . 102 XXI. Reasons Which Prove the Possibility of Sorcerers and Witches Being Transported—Continuation of the Same Subject . . . 111 XXII. Obsession and Possession by the Devil . . . 114 XXIII. The Truth and Reality of Possession and Obsession by the Devil Proven from Scripture . . . 117 XXIV. Examples of Real Possessions Caused by the Devil . . . 119 XXV. Continuation of the Same Subject . . . 123 XXVI. Objections Against the Obsessions and Possessions of Demons—Reply to the Objections . . . 128 XXVII. Further Objections Against Possessions and Replies to Those Objections . . . 132 XXVIII. Of Familiar Spirits . . . 138 XXIX. Other Examples of Elves . . . 142 XXX. Spirits That Guard Hidden Treasure . . . 149 XXXI. Instances of Hidden Treasures Guarded by Spirits . . . 153 XXXII. Apparitions That Predict Unknown Events . . . 156 XXXIII. Other Apparitions of Spectres . . . 159 XXXIV. Examination of the Apparition of a Pretended Spectre . . . 163 XXXV. Spectres That Haunt Houses . . . 165 XXXVI. More Cases of Spectres That Haunt Certain Houses . . . 170 XXXVII. Prodigious Effects of Imagination in Those Who Believe They Interact with Demons . . . 172 XXXVIII. Return and Apparitions of Souls After Death Proven from Scripture . . . 176 XXXIX. Apparitions of Spirits Proven from History . . . 180 XL. More Instances of Apparitions . . . 185 XLI. Apparitions of Spirits That Imprint Their Hands on Clothes or Wood . . . 190 XLII. Opinions of Jews, Greeks, and Latins Concerning the Dead Left Unburied . . . 195 XLIII. Messages or Revelations Given by the Dead to the Living . . . 201 XLIV. Apparitions of the Living to Other Living Men Over Long Distances . . . 204 XLV. Arguments Concerning Apparitions . . . 210 XLVI. Objections Against Apparitions and Replies to Those Objections . . . 221 XLVII. Additional Objections and Replies . . . 224 XLVIII. Secrets of Physics and Chemistry Mistaken for Supernatural Events . . . 229 XLIX. Conclusion of the Treatise on Apparitions . . . 232 L. Ways to Explain Apparitions . . . 235 LI. The Difficulty of Explaining How Apparitions Appear, Regardless of Proposed Systems . . . 241 XXXII. A Vroucolacan Exhumed in the Presence of M. de Tournefort . . . 304 XXXIII. Does the Demon Have the Power to Kill and Restore Life? . . . 308 XXXIV. Examination of the Opinion that the Demon Can Restore Life to a Dead Body . . . 310 XXXV. Instances of Phantoms Appearing to the Living and Showing Signs of Life . . . 313 XXXVI. The Practice of Devoting People to Death Among the Heathens . . . 314 XXXVII. Instances of Dooming to Death Among Christians . . . 317 XXXVIII. Instances of People Who Promised to Send News of Themselves from the Afterlife . . . 321 XXXIX. Extracts from the Political Works of the Abbe de St. Pierre . . . 325 XL. Various Systems for Explaining Ghosts . . . 331 XLI. Instances of People Buried Alive . . . 333 XLII. Instances of Drowned Persons Reviving . . . 335 XLIII. Instances of Women Believed Dead Who Came Back to Life . . . 337 XLIV. Applicability of These Cases to Hungarian Revenants . . . 339 XLV. Dead People Who Chew in Their Graves and Consume Their Own Flesh . . . 340 XLVI. Unique Case of a Hungarian Revenant . . . 341 XLVII. Arguments on This Subject . . . 343 XLVIII. Are Vampires or Revenants Truly Dead? . . . 344 XLIX. Case of a Man Named Curma Sent Back to This World . . . 351 L. Instances of People Entering Ecstatic Trances at Will and Remaining Senseless . . . 354 LI. Application of Such Cases to Vampires . . . 356 LII. Examination of the Theory that Demons Fascinate the Eyes of Those Who See Vampires . . . 360 LIII. Cases of Resurrected People Who Describe What They Saw in the Afterlife . . . 361 LIV. Pagan Traditions About the Afterlife Deriving from Hebrew and Egyptian Beliefs . . . 364 LV. Christian Accounts of Resurrected Persons Sent Back to This World, including the Vision of Vetinus, a Monk of Augia . . . 366 LVI. Vision of Bertholdas, as Reported by Hincmar, Archbishop of Rheims . . . 368 LVII. Vision of St. Fursius . . . 369 LVIII. Vision of a Protestant from York and Other Cases . . . 371 LIX. Conclusion of the Dissertation . . . 374 LX. The Moral Impossibility of Ghosts Emerging from Their Tombs . . . 376 LXI. Challenges in Believing and Explaining Reports of Excommunicated People Leaving Churches . . . 378 LXII. Remarks on the Dissertation Concerning the Spirit at St. Maur des Fosses . . . 380 LXIII. Dissertation by an Anonymous Author on the Appearance of Spirits in Relation to the St. Maur Incident of 1706 . . . 387 Letters Letter from the Marquis Maffei on Magic . . . 407 Letter from Reverend Father Dom Calmet to M. Debure . . . 410 Tags Apparitions, spirits, ghosts, supernatural, supernatural phenomena, Christian theology, angels, angelology, demonology, demons, possession, exorcism, hauntings, revenants, vampires, undead, afterlife, resurrection, Biblical supernatural, Old Testament, New Testament, Bible, religious philosophy, theology, metaphysics, philosophy of spirits, Augustine Calmet, Henry Christmas, folklore, supernatural folklore, medieval mysticism, paganism, occult, occultism, magic, sorcery, witchcraft, witches, warlocks, alchemy, occult philosophy, oracles, ancient prophecy, divination, Egyptian magic, Chaldean magic, Greco-Roman myths, Roman religion, Greek mythology, Eastern mysticism, Oriental traditions, Islamic traditions, Judaic traditions, Jewish folklore, Islamic supernatural, cultural belief systems, ancient beliefs, ancient religions, Christianity, Christian doctrines, pagan practices, non-Christian religions, morality, spiritual beings, apparitions of the dead, apparitions of angels, apparitions of demons, miraculous events, mystical experiences, miracles, divine intervention, supernatural encounters, otherworldly, apparitional, demon possessions, religious exorcisms, spiritual possession, haunted places, haunted houses, spectral appearances, ghostly apparitions, mystical visions, supernatural visions, spirit world, mysticism, mystics, visionary experiences, medieval visions, religious visions, apparitional narrative...

Mythology has always been a pivotal element in human society, often describing the tensions between humanity and the world around them. Although traditionally defined as stories, myth, according to the 20th century philosopher Ernst Cassirer, is in fact an interpretation filled with symbolism in order to navigate the problematic of the human condition. It becomes a dialogue between Man and his environment, in which Man attempts to explain the ambiguities that permeate his everyday existence. Aquinas, in his treatment of demons in his Summa Theologica, wove together an intricate mythology comprising of discourse and stories about demons. Although a non-narrative format, this treatise became the mythology of the educated elite of the Mediaeval world. By analysing Cassirer's treatment of myth in his An Essay of Man and applying the theory to Aquinas' understanding of demons in his Summa Theologica, this paper will look at how the ambiguities of the human condition was expressed, how symbols were used to construct a language and how Aquinas' demonology approaches and rationalises the nature of the Mediaeval world. What we will see is a development of a mythic thought that culminates in constructing a non-narrative mythology.

When the first recorded outbreak of bubonic plague began its destructive rampage around the Mediterranean world in 541, the inhabitants of the Eastern Roman Empire struggled to make sense of a disease having a catastrophic mortality rate. My paper explores how two contemporary Byzantine historians, Yuhannan of Amida (better known as John of Ephesus) and Prokopios of Caesarea, soberly recorded the deadly progress of the pandemic. However the very scale of the disaster required each author to move beyond the restrictions of Thucydidean history and document the supernatural occurrences which mystified the population throughout the course of the plague. My research determined that it is possible to group the supernatural events recorded into three categories: the alien visitors, the avenging spirits, and the deceiving demons, with each category offering a different perspective and explanation of the onset and the progression of the plague. The histories of John of Ephesus and Prokopios are far more than a dry recollection of facts and details. With the medical inability to combat the plague, a wise and logical response to the disaster meant examining the unknown for answers. Each author used the supernatural occurrences to offer another mode of understanding for the calamity, but is this their sole intention? Could these supernatural events serve a greater purpose within each historian’s work? With close textual analysis, it can be shown that these supernatural occurrences provided our historians with subtle ways to sharply critique the political and religious world of the Age of Justinian.

I QUADERNI DEL RAMO D'ORO, vol. 10, 2018

Continuity and Change, 1999

2019

By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe any third party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification.

University of New Mexico, 2017

This project is an amalgamation of case studies, arguing that not only did the supernatural permeate every level of medieval society, but that its potential for analysis and interpretation is largely unexplored. These case studies include: an analysis of the Church Fathers works, including Tertullian’s De testimonio animae, Augustine of Hippo’s De cura pro mortuis gerenda, and Gregory the Great’s Dialogi, addressing the variation in these works’ theological ideas about the soul; an analysis of the works of Gregory of Tours (his Liber vitae Patrum and Historia Francorum), which reflect popular beliefs as opposed to those of the educated elite; an exploration of the genre of exempla during the high middle ages utilizing five ghost stories found in the Cistercian monk Caesarius of Heisterbach’s Dialogus miraculorum; a move into the late middle ages and beyond, examining some fifteenth-century exempla found in the margins of a manuscript from Byland Abbey, Yorkshire, their connection to the Danish ghost in Hamlet, and the oral and folkloric traditions that tie all of these sources together.

2013

Numen, 2013

Even though the concept of “magic” has sufffered severe criticism in academic discourse, the category continues to be used in many disciplines. During the last two decades, classicists in particular have engaged in a lively discussion over “magic” and have produced an impressive amount of written output. Given the impossibility of defijining “magic” in a consistent and widely accepted manner, one cannot help but wonder what these scholars are actually talking about. Hence this paper purports (a) to critically review the recent debate on “magic” in Classical Studies, (b) to advocate for abandoning an abstract category of “magic” in favour of a proper analysis of ancient sources and (c) to historicize the term “magic” in Antiquity, that is, to muse on its ancient semantics, functions, and contexts. This methodological approach does not only overcome the major problems inherent in modern definitions of “magic,” but will also yield new insights into terminologies, modes of thought and speech strategies that underlie ancient religious discourses.

Pietat, prodigi i mitificació a la tradició literària occidental, 2019

In the beginnings of Christianism, together with theological controversies and the construction of a rational discourse, other narratives appeared which took the form of Acts, Lives of Saints or novels. They dealt with the opposition between truth and falsehood through tales of miracles and magic. Some of these expressed the conflict between monotheism and the popular practices which tried to control the world of nature through magic. Although sorcerers and necromancers existed in the non-Christian world, and magic was severely controlled or even forbidden by the authorities in Imperial times, in Christian literature they played an important role as representing error in front of the truth of the Apostles who performed miracles. The life of Cyprian of Antioch, a magician who dealt with the devil, and the pious Justina, who refused his diabolical advances, was popular in Late Antiquity and was rewritten as a poem by the Empress Eudocia in the 5 th century. It is a tale of magic and power, where the most important feature is not the conversion and martyrdom of both characters, but the statement that Christ and the sign of the Cross are more powerful than any magic. The legend survived in the Middle Ages and probably influenced the myth of Faust. Resum: Als inicis del cristianisme, juntament amb les controvèrsies teològiques i la construcció d'un discurs racional, van aparèixer altres narracions en forma d'actes, vides de sants o novel·les. Mitjançant relats de miracles i màgia, presentaven l'oposició entre veritat i falsedat. Algunes d'aquestes obres expressaven el conflicte entre monoteisme i les pràctiques populars que pretenien controlar el món de la natura a través de la màgia. Per bé que en el món no cristià abundaven els bruixots i els nigromants, i que la màgia era severament controlada i fins i tot prohibida per l'autoritat en temps de l'Imperi, a la literatura cristiana tenia un important paper com a representació de l'error en oposició a la veritat dels Apòstols que feien miracles. La vida de Cebrià d'Antioquia, un mag que va fer un pacte amb