Rationale for Moral Education: A Reading in Plato's Republic

In this paper, I argue that there are three broadly held misconceptions of Plato’s philosophy that work against his relevance for contemporary moral education. The first is that he is an intellectualist who is concerned only with the cognitive aspect of moral development and does not sufficiently emphasize the affective and conative aspects; the second is that he is an elitist who believes that only philosopher-kings can attain true knowledge of virtue and it is they who should govern society; the third is that he affirms the Realm of the Forms as a literal metaphysical reality and believes that for individuals to attain virtue they must access this Realm through contemplation. The goal of this paper is to correct these misconceptions. By rehabilitating Plato’s reputation, future researchers in moral education may discover his philosophy new avenues for exploration in how best to cultivate virtues in students.

Following Lawrence Kohlberg (1981) it has been commonplace to regard Plato’s moral theory as “intellectualist,” where Plato supposedly believes that becoming virtuous requires nothing other than “philosophical knowledge or intuition of the ideal form of the good” (30). This is a radical misunderstanding of Plato’s educational program, however. While Plato claims that knowledge is extremely important in the initial stages of the moral development of young adults, he also claims that knowledge must be followed by a rigorous process of imitation and habituation. Like Aristotle, Plato believes that it is not possible to become virtuous if one does not practice the virtues under the guidance of virtuous role models. This paper seeks to illuminate this little recognized aspect of Plato’s educational program. When properly understood, Plato’s theory offers educators important insights into how best to encourage the moral development of young adults.

Last year I taught a graduate course in education and philosophy to secondary and elementary school teachers and administrators entitled «Teaching Ethics across the Curriculum». The purpose of the course was to aid teachers as they sought to teach ethics to children, years before the children would enter college level ethics courses. The centerpiece of the course was Plato's Republic, especially book VII, in which Socrates presents a model for the education of just citizens starting with the education of small children. Therein lies much thought that is helpful to teachers, parents and all who wish to teach children and themselves to live justly. To give some background to the conversation, the Republic is an account of a dialogue that takes place between Socrates and a number of young men who have persuaded him to join them at a party. The party quickly turns into a conversation about the nature of justice, which Socrates controversially claims is an excellence of the soul and ...

Moral Education in the 21st Century, ed. Douglas W. Yacek, Mark E. Jonas, and Kevin H. Gary, 2023

In this essay, I offer some of the reasons to think that Plato has a substantial contribution to make to contemporary thinking about moral education. To allow a sense of how wide the range of reasons is, I start by listing ten miscellaneous reasons that one can compellingly offer and some of which scholars *have* offered. Then I present my preferred reason, which involves a way of approaching Plato that is new and unorthodox. When you approach Plato this way, you don't try to interpret him correctly. Instead, you use his writings simply as a tool for theorizing, and what you theorize about is how best to carry out the Socratic project of leading other people to self-examination.

2013

I  the tripartite psychological theory of Plato's Republic, the spirited part of the soul, or the thumoeides, is granted a prominent role in moral development: its 'job' in the soul is to support and defend the practical judgements issued by the reasoning part (particularly against the deleterious influence of the appetitive part), and its effective carrying out of that job is identified with the virtue of courage ( -). Early moral education, consequently, is largely concerned with preparing the spirited part of the soul for this role as reason's 'ally'. In Plato's later work the Laws, the theory of tripartition is never explicitly advocated: there is no mention of a division of the soul into parts, and hence no discussion of a 'spirited' part of the soul with a positive role to play in moral development. Not only that, but some of the most conspicuous passages about spirited motivation in the text emphasize its negative impact on our psychology and behaviour. The spirited emotion of anger, for example, is identified as one of the primary causes of criminal behaviour ( ). All this has led many commentators to conclude that in the Laws Plato rejects the tripartite theory of the soul as we know it from the Republic and adopts a new psychological model in its place. Christopher Bobonich, for example, has argued that Plato abandoned the idea of a partitioned soul altogether in the Laws, opting instead for a unitary conception of the soul.  According to Bobonich, by the time Plato wrote the Laws, he had come to believe that all human motivations draw on the resources of reasoning, and hence that there can no longer be purely 'non-rational' soul-parts © Joshua Wilburn  I would like to thank the audience at the First Canadian Colloquium for Ancient Philosophy and the Editor for their feedback on earlier versions of this paper.  C. Bobonich, Plato's Utopia Recast: His Later Ethics and Politics [Utopia] (Oxford, ),  ff.  Utopia, , . What makes 'non-rational' desires and emotions non-rational, according to Bobonich, is that, although they all involve applications of reasoning, they involve partial or incomplete applications of it. Impetuous anger, for example, involves a sensitivity to some, but not all, relevant rational considerations about a perceived injustice (ibid. -).

Educational Theory, 2021

Ethical Explorations: Moral Dilemmas in Universe of Possibilities, 2023

In this chapter, you'll begin your journey into the realm of ethical thought, setting off from a metaphorical origin that has shaped Western philosophy for centuries: Plato's Cave. This iconic allegory serves as a launchpad to delve into ethical complexities and different perspectives on morality and human behavior. First, you will examine three distinct variations of the cave story. Each of these variations not only explores different facets of the human condition but also challenges your preconceived notions about what is real, what is illusion, and how these perceptions influence our actions and decisions. You'll engage with thought-provoking questions accompanying each variation to spur critical thinking and encourage deeper introspection. Following these variations, you'll dive into the 'Big Ideas' section, starting with a closer look at Plato's Cave itself. This profound allegory opens doors to metaphysical and epistemological considerations which, in turn, form a strong foundation for our exploration of ethics. Subsequently, the concept of ethics will be unpacked in greater detail. You will grapple with intriguing questions about moral values, societal norms, and the intricate relationship between ethics and human nature. To further deepen your understanding, we'll delve into the realm of metaethics, investigating how these grand theories of good and evil hold up within the confines of the cave. This will help illuminate the complexities of ethical thinking and its practical implications. We will then bring your attention to the challenge to ethics posed by the theory of “egoism”, as seen through the lens of another of Plato's allegories - the Ring of Gyges. This tale provides a rich context for discussing self-interest, power, and moral responsibility, setting the stage for the ethical explorations that lie ahead. Finally, you will find a set of discussion questions designed to further stimulate critical thinking and promote thoughtful discourse. A glossary at the end of the chapter will serve as a helpful reference point to clarify any unfamiliar terms and concepts. This chapter is not merely an introduction to the subject of ethics, but a thought-provoking journey that will challenge you to question, analyze, and understand the moral landscape of human existence. As we venture together from the darkness of Plato's Cave towards the light of ethical knowledge, remember: philosophy, in essence, is not just about finding answers, but about learning to ask the right questions.

2019

PDF-PowerPoint presentation of the talk I gave on Tuesday, 7th May 2019 at the Deparment of Philosophy of the University of Trnava. Elements contained in the PowerPoint can be found in the already uploaded publication "The Drama of the Human Condition. Notes on the Causes and Origins of Evil in Plato's Republic". Abstract In my analysis, I would like to expose some suggestions on Plato’s interpretation of the origins and the causes of Evil in the human dimension. I shall mainly base my analysis on some passages of Plato’s Republic. The thesis of my analysis is that the root of the existence of Evil in the human dimension lies in the structure of the human soul as such. The human condition consists in being imperfect, suspended, exposed: Human beings are exposed to the risk of moral degeneration because of the very nature of their own soul, since the soul’s being composed of different parts and the mutual relations holding between the three parts cause the emergence of justice or of injustice. The origin of Evil is within us; we are the cause of any moral degradation in the human dimension, no matter whether we speak of individuals, of societies or of human history in general. Hence, we do not need to seek far away from ourselves in order to find the cause of any bad deed whatsoever. Plato is searching, in the Republic, a way out from all the negative dispositions connected to the human soul. We can see, through Plato’s observations on the structure of the soul, that the soul is composed of three potencies (the rational part, the spirited part, the appetitive part). Every individual is, as such, a plurality of at least partially independent entities. We are borne divided in ourselves: a reunification of the parts of our soul is morally indispensable. The soul’s being composed of different parts shows us into the moral question of justice and injustice. The main problem concerning our soul is that we ought to seek a morally correct equilibrium between the parts of our soul: this equilibrium is not given; it will not arise by itself; it must be reached, and it can be reached only through an appropriate education. The relations between these three parts can be characterized by harmony, if the rational part exercises the leading authority: this state is the condition of justice. The parts can find themselves, though, in conflict with each other, without, consequently, the rational part being able to exercise the duty of leadership: Whenever a condition of conflict between parts comes about, the soul is thrown in the condition of injustice. Both good and evil in the individual come about from the correct or incorrect condition of the soul. Philosophical education exercises the decisive role in the development of justice, since only this kind of education can produce the development of the rational part; without the correct development of the rational part, individuals will be always exposed to the risk of moral degeneration. The strengthening of the rational part is, therefore, necessary. The book IV of the Republic needs the extension represented by the Book V, in oder that the instability of the dimension of opinion and the stability of the dimension of Being and of Truth is analysed. Furthermore, Book IV is connected to book VII: the programme of education is thought out in order to strengthen the rational part of the individuals. Moreover, Books VIII and IX show the consequences that would happen in case of the lack of an appropriate education. In my analysis, the causes of the presence of Evil will be shown through some passages of the Republic: I shall first describe Plato’s definition of justice and of injustice; then, I shall examine a passage in which Plato describes the presence of criminal instincts within us; afterwards, I shall take into consideration images of the soul confirming the presence of morally difficult elements within our own nature. The way out from the problems represented by the structure of our soul consists, in my opinion, in the progressive assimilation to the realm of Being. The whole description of the degeneration both of individuals and of constitutions in Republic Books VIII and IX shows that something within us morally does not function: this produces every kind of troubles in individuals, in nations and, in general, in human history. Actually, men are always exposed to the risk of moral degeneration: the weaker the philosophical education is, the greater is the risk of the moral degeneration. The common point in the different forms of degeneration is the absence of the factor of education, that is, without education there is a degeneration of individuals and of society. It is true that the degeneration can happen in any case; without education, though, the degeneration cannot be limited.

The goal of this study is to deal with three reasons explaining the importance and necessity of moral education – not just in schools but in general. The research question is: Why do we need moral education? Each subchapter of this study will provide answers or grounds from which the necessity of moral education will be deduced, and which I intend to expose in this study. They apply to three particular areas: 1) the nature of the human being as a moral being, 2) the nature of moral reality itself, and 3) the speci􀏐ic nature of the postmodern situation in which we recognize the need for moral formation. The analysis of the three phenomena provides an argument for traditional moral realism which not only grounds any moral education but also makes it possible. Moral education proves to be not merely necessary but also philosophically legitimate.

Educational Philosophy and Theory

Abstract In Plato, ‘Becoming like God’ constitutes the telos of the philosophical life. Our ‘likeness to God’ is rooted in the relationship of the divine paradeigma to its image established in the generation of the Cosmos. This relationship makes knowledge and virtue possible, and informs Plato’s theory of education. Related concepts preexist in Judeo-Christian and other traditions and continue to inform our thought on moral and ethical issues, particularly as regards our understanding of what it means to be human. From the idea of ‘likeness to God’, emerges the tradition of philosophical mysticism which has its roots in Plotinus, whose aim is union of the individual soul with its ultimate principle (henosis, unio mystica). The task of realizing virtue in daily life appears opposed to assimilation to the divine, because the latter requires a stripping away of finite determinations, and preoccupation with particular things, in order that we may escape from the multiplicity of sensible and even intelligible reality. This article considers the opposition between ‘worldly’ and ‘otherworldly’ virtue, as well as previously neglected aspects of ‘likeness to God’ and ‘becoming like God’ in Plato and Plotinus, and explores their continued relevance for pedagogical theory and practice today.