Indra's Flight and Affliction

Flash article n. 13, July 2022

The contributions that Asko Parpola has made to the study of the earliest phases of South Asian culture are varied but invariably stimulating. As a small tribute to his scholarly energy and to his leadership in our discipline, I offer this survey of that most outstanding of the Vedic gods, Indra, as he appears in the Sanskrit epics.

Sanasar, the founder of the dynasty of heroes of the epic “Daredevils of Sasun,” is the epicized version of the thunder god, who has many common characteristics with the Indian and Hurrian thunder gods. On the other hand, Sanasar’s predecessor Aram, one of the ethnarchs of the Armenian ethnogonic myth, represents the Armenian counterpart of the Indian R􀀁ma, an epicized version of Indra. M􀀃ak, Aram’s governor of Cappadocia, is considered the eponym of the Phrygians. In Armenian and Indian tradition some traces of the Phrygian and Hurrian associations may be found, which may be considered in the historical context.

2015

When one looks at mythology across different cultures, certain similarities can be seen not only in the themes and motifs of the myths themselves, but in the myths and iconography of certain deities with similar features. Indra of Vedic, Zeus of Greek and Thor of Norse mythology are three such deities that seem to have many similarities. They are all thunder or storm deities and are associated with a particular weapon: Indra with Vajra, Zeus with Keraunos and Thor with Mjollnir. These weapons, strongly associated with thunder and lightning, are used in myths to kill several characters. Indra kills vrtra, Zeus kills the titans, and Thor kills the jotnar (giants) among others. Both Indra and Zeus are the rulers of gods within their own pantheon. Thor is not the king, but is the son of Odin, the king of gods, and hence, is still divine royalty. The three deities are seen in conflict with their families. Indra and Zeus are also associated with the bull. Thus, a brief analysis reveals commonalities between these three deities. This paper is an in-depth analysis of the similarities and differences between Indra, Zeus and Thor. The study will be Anthropological in nature, and will be conducted using a functional apprach. The aim is to conduct a comparative analysis of the myths of these three deities in order to understand similarities and differences in attributes, the reasons behind the existence of similar attributes, and the deities’ position within the pantheon and the culture as a whole. The paper will also examine the rise and fall in the popularity of these deities within their own cultures, and attempt to provide functional reasons for the same.

Longmans, Green and CO. 39 Paternnoster Row , London + New York and Bombay, 1897

CONTENTS CHAPTER I: Retrospect The Beginnings of Comparative Mythology, Mr. Herbert Spencer, &c. Story of Tuna from Mangaia. Proper Use of the Mythology of Uncivilized Peoples. Dr. Codrington on Totems. Meaning of ‘Primitive.’ Kronos and his Children. Fontenelle. Comparative Mythology founded. Names. Gervinus and Haupt. Controversies. Fermentation of Mythology. Study of Savage Tribes. My Defenders. Canizzaro. Sir Henry Maine. Mr. Horatio Hale. Professor Tiele. Kronos and Polynesian Folklore. M. Gaidoz. Influence of Language on Mythology. How Gender influences Mythology. The Moon. The Sun. Ideas fixed by Words. Importance of Mythology and Philosophy. Differences of Opinion Natural. Importance of Names. Help derived from Gender. Dual or Correlative Character of Deities. The Asvins and Helena. Many-sidedness of Ancient Gods. Etymology uncertain. Mythological and Historical Elements. Herakles, Alexander, Charlemagne. Mythology Anomalous. Stages of Mythology. Anomalous Names. Vedic Names. Folk-etymologies. Words without any Etymology. Study of Mythology changed. CHAPTER II: On the Problems and Methods of the Science of Mythology Three Schools of Mythological Study. Myth and History. Heroes. True Problem of Mythology. Our True Interest in Mythology. Disease of Language. Iroquois Stories. Mythology as a Psychological Problem. The Hyponoia of Mythology. Greek Views on the Meaning of Mythology. Gods as representing the Prominent Phenomena of Nature. The Weather and the Seasons. Saws about Weather. Historical Traditions. Enigmatic Language of Mythology. Gods with Intelligible Names. Helios and Selene. The Boat and the Herds of Helios. Selene. Apollon and Artemis. Gods with many Epithets, Hermes. Enigmatic Phase of Mythology. The Golden Apples. Montenegro Song of the Golden Apples. Sezjanian Riddles and Myths. Mordvinian Riddles and Greek Mythology. Mythology, no System. Mythographi. The Brothers Grimm, Schwartz, Castren. Had Gods and Heroes a Common Origin? Naturalia non sunt turpia. Heroes parallel with Gods. Helena both Goddess and Heroine. Dr. Hahn on Märchen. Beginnings of Mythology Lost. Schelling. Original Elements of Mythology. Male and Female Agents. Common Epithets of Physical Agents. What are the Devas? True Meaning of Deva. Mitra and Varuna. Names of the Devas in Modern Sanskrit or in Zend. Complementary Devas. Mitra and Varuna. How to compare Vedic and Greek Gods. The brilliant Haritas. Agni, Fire, Light, Sun. Indra. Ushas. Devas not restricted to one single Phenomenon. CHAPTER III: The Study of Specific Deities and Folklore Children of the Sun, Moon, &c. Eclipses of the Moon. Koi (Koit), the Dawn. Luonnotar. Water Deities. Earth Deities. Haltias. Abstract Deities. Subterrestrial Gods, and Ancestral Spirits. Castren’s Summing Up. Castren. Foreign Influences. The Mundane Egg. Physical Basis of the Ugro-Finnic Mythologies. CHAPTER IV: Psychological School of Comparative Mythology Ethno-psychological Studies. Dr. Gruppe. Sense of Shame. Discovery of Motives. Abstract Ideas among Savages. CHAPTER V: Phonetics Phonetic Rules, General and Special. Discovery of Phonetic Rules. Restricted Evidence for Phonetic Rules. Discussions about θεός. Comparative Philology at Leipzig in 1838. Bopp, Pott, Grimm. Grimm’s Law. Exceptions to Grimm’s Law. Lottner, Grassmann. Verner’s Law. Threefold Differentiation of Roots. Change of Place. Schleicher’s Ursprache. Dialects antecedent to Classical Speech. Aryan Vowels. Correspondence of Aryan Vowels. Unchangeability of Phonetic Laws. Analogy. Importance of Sanskrit. The Vedic Accent. Weak and Strong Terminations. Explanation of the Ablaut. Weakening and Strengthening of the Base. True Value of Phonetics. The Becoming of Letters. Aryan Vowels and their Legitimate Changes. The Accent. Ablaut. Instances. Assimilation (J. Schmidt). Consonants. Two Kinds of Palatals. Two Kinds of Gutturals. Application of Phonetic Rules to Proper Names. Local Names. Loss of Meaning entails Change of Form. Christian Names. Proper Names in Greek. Proper Names of Gods and Heroes. Dialectic Varieties of Proper Names. New Etymologies by Prof. Bechtel (Dionysos, Kerberos, Varvara, Zeus). θεός = Ushas. Dioskouroi = Divas putrasa. Trito and Tritogeneia. Helios, Mene, and Hestia. Erinys = Sarawyu. Helios. Athene. Poseidon. Hermes. Hera. Phoibos. Apollon. Ares. Artemis. Aphrodite. Anomalous Words of a more Ancient Stratum. Words with Different Etymologies. Prapides. Analogy and its Limits. Loss of Letters. Freedom in analyzing Mythological Names. Local Influence. Dialectic Varieties of Mythological Names. Aspirates, Sonant, and Surd. Mythological Names, Prehistoric. Daphne. Athene. Evidence necessarily limited. Gawapaçça. Briseis. Night and Clouds. Varuna. Orthros. Recapitulation. This rare and awe-inspiring book offers an in-depth exploration of the vast Collection of global mythology, blending scholarship with captivating storytelling. It traces the origins and evolution of mythological narratives from the dawn of civilization, revealing how humanity's earliest beliefs were shaped by a profound connection to nature, the cosmos, and the divine. Delving into the myths of ancient Egypt, Sumeria, Greece, and Rome, as well as lesser-known stories from Polynesia, Vedic traditions, and indigenous peoples, the book brings to life the gods, goddesses, and heroes who personified the forces of creation, destruction, and renewal. From the cosmic battles of Kronos and his children to the symbolic significance of the sun, moon, and seasons, each chapter sheds light on how myths functioned as both spiritual allegory and historical record. The work also uncovers the psychological and linguistic underpinnings of mythology, exploring how language itself influenced the formation of gods and sacred stories. It delves into the role of totems, primal symbols, and the enigmatic nature of deities who embody multiple, often contradictory, aspects of existence. With rich analysis on the effects of myth on both ancient and modern consciousness, it also offers insight into how mythology continues to shape philosophy, art, and religious thought today. Encompassing everything from the study of savage tribes and their gods to the sophisticated epics of classical antiquity, this book is not merely a scholarly work but a profound exploration of the shared human experience. It is a treasure trove of wisdom and cultural heritage for anyone fascinated by the mysteries of the past, the sacred, and the origins of human belief. tags- • Ancient Mythology, 2. Comparative Religion, 3. Mythological Symbols, 4. Deities in Folklore, 5. Gods and Heroes, 6. Primitive Beliefs, 7. Religious Philosophy, 8. Vedic Traditions, 9. Greek Mythology, 10. Roman Deities, 11. Egyptian Gods, 12. Sumerian Texts, 13. Totemism, 14. Polynesian Folklore, 15. Kronos Myths, 16. Cultural Anthropology, 17. Mythic Archetypes, 18. Ancient Rites, 19. Sacred Rituals, 20. Creation Myths, 21. Sun Worship, 22. Moon Deities, 23. Totem Symbols, 24. Nature Worship, 25. Heroic Legends, 26. Divine Myths, 27. Linguistic Anthropology, 28. Mythic Symbolism, 29. Sacred Texts, 30. Epic Heroes, 31. Ancestral Spirits, 32. Ethno-religion, 33. Gender in Mythology, 34. Earth Gods, 35. Fire Worship, 36. Water Deities, 37. Air Spirits, 38. Solar Deities, 39. Lunar Myths, 40. Seasonal Myths, 41. Agricultural Deities, 42. Mythological Dualism, 43. Folk Etymology, 44. Sacred Geography, 45. Animal Totems, 46. Mythic Heroes, 47. Cosmic Deities, 48. Storm Gods, 49. War Deities, 50. Fertility Myths, 51. Death and Rebirth, 52. Afterlife Beliefs, 53. Funerary Rites, 54. Ancestor Worship, 55. Creation Legends, 56. Sacred Mountains, 57. Divine Kingship, 58. Magical Beings, 59. Supernatural Powers, 60. Mythical Creatures, 61. Dragons in Mythology, 62. Legendary Beasts, 63. Gods of Wisdom, 64. Goddesses of Fertility, 65. Sacred Feminine, 66. Mythic Kings, 67. Divine Queens, 68. Underworld Deities, 69. Sky Gods, 70. Weather Spirits, 71. Nature Myths, 72. Sacred Numbers, 73. Religious Symbols, 74. Tribal Mythology, 75. Epic Tales, 76. Divine Twins, 77. Archetypal Myths, 78. Mythological Cycles, 79. Pantheon of Gods, 80. Holy Beings, 81. Prophetic Legends, 82. Astral Mythology, 83. Divine Messengers, 84. Mythological Beings, 85. Heroic Journeys, 86. Trickster Gods, 87. Animal Spirits, 88. Healing Gods, 89. Shamanic Myths, 90. Mystical Experiences, 91. Visionary Myths, 92. Dream Interpretation, 93. Divine Visions, 94. Heavenly Realms, 95. Ethereal Beings, 96. Divine Emblems, 97. Goddesses of War, 98. Battle Deities, 99. Death Gods, 100. River Deities, 101. Mountain Spirits, 102. Sacred Trees, 103. Mythical Trees, 104. World Trees, 105. Creation Eggs, 106. Ocean Deities, 107. Sea Gods, 108. Sky Myths, 109. Stellar Deities, 110. Mythic Serpents, 111. Phoenix Myths, 112. Eternal Life, 113. Immortality Myths, 114. Chaos and Order, 115. Cosmic Battles, 116. Light and Dark, 117. Good vs Evil, 118. Mythical Time, 119. Sacred Calendars, 120. Heroic Sagas, 121. Divine Justice, 122. Lawgiver Gods, 123. Fate and Destiny, 124. Goddess of Fate, 125. Mythical Journeys, 126. Sacred Quests, 127. Legendary Warriors, 128. Divine Warriors, 129. Mythic Weapons, 130. Divine Fire, 131. Sacred Waters, 132. Ritual Purification, 133. Divine Punishment, 134. Celestial Beings, 135. Divine Intervention, 136. Miraculous Events, 137. Mythical Healing, 138. Oracles in Mythology, 139. Divine Prophecy, 140. Sacred Oracles, 141. Divine Inspiration, 142. Mythical Heroes, 143. Sacred Challenges, 144. Heroic Deeds, 145. Divine Tests, 146. Sacred Temples, 147. Religious Architecture, 148. Divine Relics, 149. Sacred Icons, 150. Holy Artifacts, 151. Mythical Artifacts, 152. Divine Healers, 153. Sacred Illnesses, 154. Divine Retribution, 155. Divine Transformation, 156. Animal Metamorphosis, 157. Godly Sacrifices, 158. Blood Sacrifices, 159. Mythic Resurrection, 160. Life and Death, 161. Rebirth Myths, 162. Creation of Man, 163. Divine Origins, 164....

Journal of Indo European Studies, 2008

Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 79th Session (ISSN 2249-1937), pp. 46-52., 2019

This paper is based on the notion of intertextuality, primarily between the Greco-Roman accounts of early India and the itihāsa-purāṇa tradition. Usually, the two traditions are considered drastically different, as the ancient Indians have often been considered lacking in historical sense whereas the classical Greco-Roman civilization had produced several historians. However, this paper focuses on Arrian, considered one of the most reliable and rational historians among those who had commented on India, to show that the difference between the two texts is not as much as presumed. Arrian based his account on the accounts left by the companions of Alexander and the Indika of Megasthenes. His unique contributions among the Greco-Roman authors who used these texts include his attempt to write a history of India before Alexander’s invasion, on the basis of Greek myths. This account is characterised by Arrian’s chauvinistic bias that leads him to represent the Greeks as superior to Indians and the Greeks proper as superior to the Macedonial Alexander. Thus, in Arrian’s Indika, the Greek deity Dionysus is credited with civilizing India (and founding a city called Nysa) whereas Heracles is also credited with a set of Indian adventures. The paper shows that these accounts are not totally invented by Arrian, but a result of confusion between Indian and Greek mythical figures. Thus, Śiva became the Indian counterpart of Dionysus, and Kṛṣṇa the Indian Heracles. However, as interaction between the Indians and the Greeks grew, they knew each other’s traditions better. Thus, gradually both the Greeks and the Indians recognised two Dionysuses, one Greek and one Indian, and debated over who was whose disciple. By the third century CE, the cross-cultural journey of myths became more complex, and even the Greeks now referred to Śaiva legends as legends of Dionysus.

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