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Knows-knows principles in epistemology (KK principles for short) say that if you know some proposition, then you are in a position to know that you know it. This paper examines the viability of analogous principles in ethics, which I call ought-ought principles (OO principles for short). Several epistemologists have recently offered new defenses of KK principles and of other related principles and there has recently been an increased interest in examining analogies between ethics and epistemology and so it seem natural to examine whether defenses of KK and related principles carry over to OO principles. In this paper I introduce two OO principles and I show how some arguments in favor of KK carry over to them. Then I show how these OO principles can be used to shed light on a much-discussed case in ethics, that of Professor Procrastinate.
The debate concerning the proper way of understanding, and hence solving, the “is-ought problem” produced two mutually exclusive positions. One position claims that it is entirely impossible to deduce an imperative statement from a set of factual statements. The other position holds a contrary view to the effect that one can naturally derive an imperative statement from a set of factual statements under certain conditions. Although these two positions have opposing views concerning the problem, it should be evident that they both accept that the “is-ought problem” is concerned with the deducibility of imperative statements from factual statements. Later I will argue that this should not be our concern when we try to make sense of the way we reason about morality
According to epistemic deontologism, attributions of epistemic justification are deontic claims about what we ought to believe. One of the most prominent objections to this conception, due mainly to William P. Alston (1988), is that the principle that ‘ought’ implies ‘can’ (OIC) rules out deontologism because our beliefs are not under our voluntary control. In this paper, I offer a partial defense of Alston’s critique of deontologism. While Alston is right that OIC rules out epistemic deontologism, appealing to doxastic involuntarism is not necessary for generating that tension. Deontologists would still have a problem with OIC if doxastic voluntarism turned out to be true or if deontologism did not require voluntarism. This is because, in short, epistemic justification does not imply ‘can’. If, as deontologists maintain, epistemic justification implies ‘oughts’, then epistemic justification must also imply ‘can’ given OIC. But since epistemic justification does not imply ‘can’, OIC dictates that we reject deontologism. I end by exploring the possible consequences of this incompatibility between OIC and deontologism. My conclusion is that at least one of the following claims must be true. Either (i) ‘ought’ does not imply ‘can’, (ii) attributions of epistemic justification are not deontic claims, or (iii) epistemic claims lack categorical normative authority.
Philosophical Issues, 2019
Are epistemic reasons normative reasons in the same sense as, for instance, moral reasons? In this paper I examine and defend the claim that epistemic reasons are normative only relative to an epistemic standard. Unlike moral reasons they are not substantially normative, because they fail to make an independent contribution to obligations or permissions simpliciter. After presenting what I take to be the main argument for this view, I illustrate that the argument has often been defended by examples which controversially presuppose strong epistemic obligations or pragmatic reasons for belief. Opponents of the argument often deny the existence of obligations and reasons of these kinds. I therefore examine whether the argument can withstand that line of critique by employing new examples.
Dialectica, 1996
This article discusses whether a naturalistic philosopher (e. g., Quine) should endorse the epistemological version of the “is/ought gap” thesis. Quine thinks that there is an epistemological gap between normative epistemology and normative ethics, but I claim that anybody holding his naturalistic and holistic views has good reasons to deny the existence of a gap separating either epistemology from ethics or descriptive discourse from nonnative discourse. I maintain that both gaps can be bridged if one adopts, like Quine, a holistic view of justification. Although justification in science, epistemology and ethics are different in certain respects, holism accounts for the justification of scientific, epistemological and ethical beliefs at a general level.
Australasian Journal of Philosophy
In this paper, I develop a standard-relational theory of ‘ought’ and a nonHumean theory of reasons (oughtism). Together, they explain why ‘A ought to X’ entails not only that there are reasons for A to X, but also that the balance of reasons favours X-ing. The latter explanation depends on a theory of weight, in which the weight of a reason depends on the position of a rule (standard) in an order of priorities. The theories are truth conditional, but do not require objective normative facts for the truth of ‘ought’ judgments and judgments about reasons.
Argumentation, 2000
Many philosophers claim that no formally valid argument can have purely non-normative premises and a normative or moral conclusion that occurs essentially. Mark Nelson recently proposed a new counterexample to this Humean doctrine:
2016
The aim of this thesis is to defend global consequentialism from its main objection, specifically the objection that it allows evaluative conflict. Global consequentialism differs from traditional forms of consequentialism in that it does not only focus on one type of thing, like acts or rules. Act consequentialism focuses on the right acts directly, and evaluates rules indirectly according to whether they lead to the right acts or not. Rule consequentialism focuses on what the right rules are, and evaluates acts indirectly by appealing to whether they conform to the right rules. Global consequentialism will rather evaluate any evaluand directly in terms of its consequences, whether it is an act, a set of rules, a law, a character trait, etc. But what should we say if having the best motives implies that you cannot do the best act. That is, if your motives are so strong they make it causally impossible for you to do the otherwise best act? This would amount to evaluative conflict, and it can supposedly happen between any set of evaluands. To put it colloquially, evaluative conflict means you are "damned if you do, and damned if you don't". I argue that evaluative conflict cannot occur since the principle 'ought' implies 'can' includes evaluands that are pragmatically impossible in conjunction with each other. If you cannot have the best motives and do the best action, then it will not be the case that you ought to have the best motives and do the best action. Derek Parfit argues that this defense would render wrongness obsolete. If determinism is true then all acts are determined by motives, and so no acts would be wrong. I argue that his solution also fails via a distinction between objective and subjective rightness. For subjective rightness his argument results in the counter-intuitive claim that we ought to do something we know that we cannot do. For objective rightness his argument leads to wrongness becoming obsolete for other theories as well, or it merely shifts wrongness to the level of motives as opposed to acts. I think that the best way of escaping these problems is to reject objective rightness. This in no way means we have to give up on a robust a notion of right and wrong, since subjective and objective rightness relates to our epistemic situation in relation to an objectively true morality, not a rejection of objectively true morality itself. VI VII ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Several people have helped me, either by answering questions about their work, or by giving me invaluable feedback. A large gratitude is owed to Ole Martin Moen for being my excellent supervisor. Many of the ideas that I explore in this thesis were developed during my time at Rutgers University, especially during conversations with Holly Smith, but also during my classes with Derek Parfit. Both of them have also been so gracious as to respond to my subsequent queries about their work via e-mail, as has Elinor Mason, and Shelly Kagan. A great gratitude is also owed to Ainar Petersen Miyata, Conrad Bakka, and Mariona Eiren Bohlin Sturm for giving me feedback on the finished thesis. And, thank you to all of the great philosophers who have written so insightfully about the subjects that I discuss. VIII
Deontological evidentialism is the claim that S ought to form or maintain S's beliefs in accordance with S's evidence. A promising argument for this view turns on the premise that consideration c is a normative reason for S to form or maintain a belief that p only if c is evidence that p is true. In this paper, I discuss the surprising relation between a recently influential argument for this key premise and the principle that ought implies can. I argue that anyone who antecedently accepts or rejects this principle already has a reason to resist either this argument's premises or its role in support of deontological evidentialism.
Canadian Journal of Philosophy, 1987
Although common sense and literature support the possibility of moral dilemmas, many traditional and contemporary philosophers deny this possibility because of several arguments. Probably the strongest argument against the possibility of moral dilemmas can be called the argument from ought and ought not. Various versions of this argument have been presented by McConnell, Hare, and Conee. Its basic form can be outlined as follows.If any agent is in any moral dilemma, then that agent ought to adopt each of two alternatives but cannot adopt both.If any agent ought to adopt any alternative, but that agent cannot adopt that alternative together with another alternative, then that agent ought not not to adopt that other alternative.Therefore, if any agent is in any moral dilemma, then that agent both ought and ought not to adopt each alternative.It is not possible that any agent both ought and ought not to adopt any alternative.Therefore, it is not possible for any agent to be in any mora...
5th International Scientific Conference: All About People Conference Proceedings with Peer-Review. , 2017
Normative theories of ethics are many, yet none seem to be broad enough so as to provide a maxim by which one can act and always do so rightly. However, at the same time, each seems to be too broad such that they allow for problems and do not hold up in individual cases. This paper proposes a new distinction that allows us to account for individual situations as well as general maxims and principles which one might and/or should hold-the distinction between moral 'oughts' and pragmatic 'bests'. The former references the normative claims on what one should do, the latter, the things which are most appropriate for the given situation and the particular individual. The foundation for this distinction rests in a moral fact regarding the connectedness of all things and established the moral principle that we should act so as to promote the general understanding of this most crucial moral fact.
Trends in Logic, 1997
Trends in Logic is a bookseries covering essentially the same area as the journal Studia Logicathat is, contemporary formal logic and its applications and relations to other disciplines. These include artificial intelligence, informatics, cognitive science, philosophy of science, and the philosophy of language. However, this list is not exhaustive, moreover, the range of applications, comparisons and sources of inspiration is open and evolves over time.
Noûs, 1974
This paper is the beginning of an explication of the "normative-descriptive" or "ought-is" distinction by way of the notion that our knowledge of other minds is the result of our imposition of constraints on the interpretation of events as actions by agents. My hope is that a general theory of rationality and the normative can be derived from an examination of the constraints it is rational to impose on agent-interpretation, i.e., of the fundamental knowledge we have of persons as persons. My attempt at an explication of the "ought-is" distinction takes the following form: I want to find an absolutely general way of determining when "ought"-sentences are true. Since the extensions of the account given below to interesting cases of "ought"-sentences such as moral and prudential cases depend on relatively complicated constraints on agent-interpretation,l this paper will deal only with the simplest case of "ought"-sentences, the "logical ought". If logic is thought of as a normative science of belief, it yields one of the simplest cases of the "normative-descriptive" dichotomy. By the "logical ought" I understand what might be called consequences of the canons of obedience to the laws of thought. An instance of such an "ought" occurs in "If you believe that frogs are green, you ought to believe that anything that's not green is not a frog." The "logical ought" is, as it were, the minimal rational "ought", the one that prescribes closure of belief under logical consequence and proscribes inconsistency of belief. It should be pointed out that the principles of the "logical ought" often come into conflict with other canons of rationality, just as principles of moral "oughts" come into conflict with each other. The example above is surely true even if NOUS 8 (1974) ?) 1974 by Indiana University 233
Episteme, 2012
This article provides a brief overview of several formal frameworks concerning the relation between knowledge (or belief) on the one hand, and obligation (or permission) on the other. We discuss the paradox of the knower, knowledge based obligation, knowingly doing, deontic dynamic epistemology, descriptive obligations, and responsibilities as dynamic epistemology.
Philosophia, 1989
The purpose of this paper is to discuss whether moral requirements range over actions or attempts. In particular, I shall examine two contexts in ethics theory that some have thought provide a basis for believing that attempts are what are morally required of agents. In both of these contexts there is an implicit appeal to the principle that 'ought' implies 'can'. In order to set the stage for my discussion of the central question, therefore, I need to begin by explaining how I think appeals to the principle that 'ought' implies 'can' typically work. Article: Part 1 If an agent is charged with wrongdoing, there are several ways that he might defend himself. He might, for example, admit that he has done something wrong, but contend that he should not be blamed for doing so. An agent who makes this defense is said to be offering an excuse for his behaviour. That one acted under duress is an example of an excuse. If I am rude to you after having been up all night tending to my sick mother. I will admit that I have behaved improperly but claim that because of the circumstances, I ought not to be blamed.
Philosophia, 2018
Many philosophers claim that 'ought' implies 'can'. In light of recent empirical evidence, however, some skeptics conclude that philosophers should stop assuming the principle unconditionally. Streumer, however, does not simply assume the principle's truth; he provides arguments for it. In this article, we argue that his arguments fail to support the claim that 'ought' implies 'can'.
Sanne Taekema, Bart van Klink and Wouter de Been (eds.), Facts and Norms in Law, Edward Elgar 2016, p. 23-49, 2016
Philosophical and methodological discussions with regard to normative and value judgment presuppose the availability of a set of clear concepts by means of which these discussions can be made fruitful. To provide such a framework, or at least its beginnings, the present paper makes and explains distinctions between, amongst others, facts and descriptions thereof, kinds of objectivity of facts, deontic facts and norms, kinds of deontic facts, kinds of rules, and facts and values. By means of some examples, the usefulness of the clear concepts for methodological issues is illustrated.
This paper dispels a misconception that has haunted western philosophy for nearly three hundred years, the idea that you cannot infer "ought" statements from "is" statements. In fact you can, quite easily. The “ought” is a hypothetical imperative, a prudential recommendation, not a categorical, universal, or moral imperative. But it is an “ought” nevertheless, and of great practical import.
Survey talk delivered to the Cambridge Meta-Ethics group in 2011. After some brief remarks on the ambiguities in Hume's version of No-Ought-From-Is, I outline Prior's paradox and discuss the various responses, principally mine (the New Zealand Plan) and Schurz's (the Austrian Plan). In this text I add seven appendices drawn mainly from my introduction to Hume On Is and Ought, amplifying the argument, discussing matters arising and outlining rival approaches to the problem, principally the relevantist solution, due to Ed Mares, and the Inference Barrier solution (the Scottish/Australian Plan) due to Gillian Russell and Greg Restall. I also discuss the work of Stephen Maitzen and Mark Nelson. In this talk I emphasize the logical aspects of the issue. Drafts of my contributions to this debate available above in 'Papers'. 'The Triviality of Hume's Law', 'Coda: Truth and Consequences' and 'Subtance, Taxonomy, Content and Consequence' emphasize the logical and meta-ethical aspects of the the issue, whilst 'Letter From a Gentleman' and 'Snare's Puzzle/Hume's Purpose' emphasize meta-ethics and the historical Hume. 'Comments on "Hume's Master Argument"' deals with all three themes. The kick-off paper is 'Logic and the Autonomy of Ethics' (1989). The last in the sequence is 'Hume on is and Ought: Logic Promises and the Duke of Wellington'.
Logics in Artificial Intelligence
The relation between agentive action, knowledge, and obligation is central to the understanding of responsibility-a main topic in Artificial Intelligence. Based on the view that an appropriate formalization of said relation would contribute to the development of ethical AI, we point out the main characteristics of a logic for objective and subjective oughts that was recently introduced in the literature. This logic extends the traditional stit paradigm with deontic and epistemic operators, and provides a semantics that deals with Horty's puzzles for knowledge and obligation. We provide an axiomatization for this logic, and address its soundness and completeness with respect to a class of relevant models.
Deontic Modality, 2016
This essay offers an account of the truth conditions of sentences involving deontic modals like 'ought', designed to capture the difference between objective and subjective kinds of 'ought' This account resembles the classical semantics for deontic logic: according to this account, these truths conditions involve a function from the world of evaluation to a domain of worlds (equivalent to a so-called "modal base"), and an ordering of the worlds in such domains; this ordering of the worlds itself arises from two further elementsa probability function and a value functionsince this ordering ranks the worlds in accordance with the expected value of certain propositions that are true at those worlds. Thus, a proposition of the form 'Ought (p)' is true at a world of evaluation w if and only if p is true at all the top-ranked worlds in the domain assigned to w. This domain of worlds consists of metaphysically possible worlds, while the probability function is defined over a space of epistemically possible worlds (which may include metaphysically impossible worlds, such as worlds where Hesperus is not Phosphorus). Evidence is given that this account assigns the correct truth conditions to a wide range of sentences involving 'ought'. Since these truth conditions involve both a domain of metaphysically possible worlds and a space of epistemically possible worlds, there are two corresponding kinds of conditional involving 'ought', depending on which space of worlds is restricted by the conditional. Finally, some objections that might be raised against this account are answered.
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