Simultaneous injuries to both eyes in traffic accidents
Moshe Hershlag2011, Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology
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Abstract
Background In traffic accidents, eye injuries occur as isolated or with polytrauma. They may involve just one eye, but simultaneous injuries to both eyes do happen occasionally. The aim of our paper was to reveal the risk factors, in an effort to reduce the number of such accidents and to prevent bilateral ocular damage. Methods All patients hospitalized at the Clinic of Eye Diseases, Clinical Center of Serbia, Belgrade, due to traffic accidents with bilateral eye injuries in a period of 9 years from the beginning of 2000 to the end of 2008 were analyzed. Results In this 9-year period, a total of 36 patients were hospitalized and treated for bilateral ocular injury (72 eyes). There were 23 males among them, the male-female ratio being 1.8:1. Mean age was 33.9 years. The occupations of injured persons were the following: the most common were workers-15, followed by clerks-seven, while less common were pupils, students, pensioners and housewives-three of each of them, and farmers-two. Front-seat passengers were the most common among the injured-20 (55.6%), then drivers-15 (41.7%), with only one passenger from the back seat on the right side (2.7%). As many as 33 (91.7%) of them failed to fasten their seat belts, while 18 (50.0%) were drunk. Penetrating bulbar injuries or eyeball ruptures were predominant-66.7%, while blunt injuries were found in only two (2.8%) eyes in one single person; but in 22 cases (30.5%) there was adnexal damage, too.
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Eye injuries in motor vehicle accidents: Epidemiology, spectrum of injury and analysis of risk factors
IP International Journal of Ocular Oncology and Oculoplasty, 2021
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Road Accidents and Ocular Injuries
IP Innovative Publication Pvt Ltd, 2019
ocular injuries in RTA constitute a major but preventable cause of visual morbidity worldwide and so it is of public health importance. Aim of study was to assess the visual outcomes in patients attending tertiary care hospital with ocular injuries following RTA and compare various associated risk factors. Materials and Methods: A prospective study was done with 104 cases of ocular injuries following RTA in GSL Medical College and Hospital to find out the visual outcome and compare various risk factors. Detailed History and clinical evaluation was done with follow up at 1st and 3rd week. Results: Maximum cases were seen in the age group of 30-50yrs, more in males (82.0%), with 67% in two wheelers. Out of the 104 cases, 67% occurred at night, 50% was under the influence of alcohol. Out of which 61% of lid injuries followed by subconjunctival haemorrhage have good prognosis. 14% cases reported with severe ocular morbidity like open globe injuries with guarded prognosis. Conclusions: Younger age group was mostly affected with male preponderance, alcohol and two wheelers being quite important risk factors. Early treatment of ocular injuries and use of protective wear result in better visual outcomes. Keywords: Alcohol influence, Ocular injury, Road traffic accidents, Subconjunctival haemorrhage, Two-wheeler.
A Clinical Study of Ocular Injuries in Road Traffic Accident Patients in a Tertiary Care Hospital
IOSR Journals , 2019
Introduction: Eye injuries are major cause of disabling ocular morbidity in developing countries. Up to 5% of all bilateral blindness occurs due to direct result of trauma.1 Ocular trauma is one of the main causes of severe ocular morbidity. Globally, more than 55 million eye injuries occur per year, while there are approximately 1.6 million people with blindness from ocular trauma, 2.3 million people who are bilaterally visually impaired, and 19 million people with unilateral blindness or visual loss. 2-4 Materials and Methods: This was a prospective study conducted on 160 cases of ocular trauma in Road Traffic Accidents attending tertiary care hospital were studied. Informed consent from selected patients were obtained. The patients with ocular injury were randomly included in the study. Patients of all ages, both males and females irrespective of economic status, who are cooperative , were included in the study. Patients who were unconscious, not cooperative and terminally ill were excluded. Results: In 160 cases, a maximum number of RTA cases in 21-30 age group 52 (34.02%) followed by 43 cases 29.84% in 31-40 age group. Out of 160 patients, 140 patients (87.5%) who sustained ocular injury were males and 20 patients (12.5%) were females. A maximum incidence of ocular injuries was seen among those travelling by two wheelers, 134 patients (83.75%) sustained injuries while travelling in 2 wheelers, 5 patients (3.125%) in 3 wheelers, 18 patients (11.25%) in 4 wheelers and 3 patients (1.875%) were pedestrians (Table 1). Conclusion: Ocular injuries due to Road Accidents involved the lids which while causing a certain degree of cosmetics disfigurement and do not have any effect on any final visual outcome. Only those injuries which involved the globe had a poor prognosis for the final visual outcome.
Clinical profile of ocular injuries following road traffic accidents in a tertiary care centre
IP innovative publication pvt. ltd, 2019
Introduction: Road traffic accidents are common occurrence owing to increase in number of vehicles and various other reasons. Severe eye injury can result in visual morbidity. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the epidemiology and pattern of ocular injuries in a tertiary care centre. Materials and Methods: This is a hospital based retrospective study of patients attending emergency outpatient department of a tertiary care centre. Demographic data and details of injury were obtained. Details of ocular examination including visual acuity, anterior and posterior segment findings and other details like extra ocular involvement, need for surgery was recorded. Results: 312 eyes of 290 patients were included in the study.91% patien ts were males. 61% of the cases presented within 24 hours of injury. There were 91% closed globe injuries and 9% open globe injuries. Periorbital ecchymosis and subconjunctival haemorrhage were the most common presentation. 23% had posterior segment involvement and 11% had orbital fractures and 21% had extra ocular involvement. 35% patients required surgical intervention. 4.8% of the patients had no perception of light. Conclusion: Ocular injuries as and when they occur have to be tackled efficiently and methodically. Primary preventive approach such as avoidance of alcohol, strict adherence to traffic rules can prevent ocular morbidity associated with road traffic accidents.
Penetrating eye injuries in road traffic accidents
Emergency Medicine Journal, 1988
A review of all penetrating eye injuries treated by the Manchester Eye Hospital over four years (1 February 1982-31 January 1986) was undertaken. One hundred and ninety-six penetrating eye injuries were seen, of which 16 (8-2%) were due to road traffic accidents. Eight patients (nine eyes) were seen in the 12 months prior to the introduction of the seat-belt legislation on 1 February 1983. None of these patients was wearing a seat-belt whereas two of the eight patients (10 eyes) seen after the seat-belt legislation were. Both these patients suffered severe visual loss due to intraocular glass from shattered windscreens. Three patients had bilateral penetrating eye injuries, one before and two after the seat-belt legislation. Two of the nine eyes involved prior to the legislation and three of the 10 eyes after the legislation had an eventual visual acuity of 6/12 or better. In the majority of patients, failure to wear seat-belts or defective use is to blame. Flying glass from shattered toughened windscreens is a preventable danger. Nine of the 16 patients were first seen in the general accident and emergency department and, of these, seven did not have visual acuities recorded prior to referral to an ophthalmologist. The importance of measurement of the visual acuity and detection of an afferent pupillary defect is stressed based on these findings.
Profile of head injuries in Road Traffic Accident cases with Ocular trauma in a rural tertiary care hospital
Background: Road traffic accidents form a major part of accident and emergency care not only in cities but also in rural places. Improved affordability, changed socio economic conditions, personality and mind set of the younger generation, etc.. have influenced the behavioral pattern directly & indirectly. Access to accident and emergency care in rural India is still limited; especially with regards to management of head injuries. This research was conducted as an arm of a study of ocular injuries, as it was felt that there was a close inter relation between ocular injuries & head injuries, the outcome of this research may help in drawing attention to head injuries and better management of the same. Objectives: To study profile and pattern of head injuries in relation to eye injury presenting to Accident and Emergency services of a tertiary care hospital, wherein ophthalmology reference was sought. Head injuries include both injuries to the brain and those to other parts of the head, such as the scalp and skull. It is also useful to study common ophthalmic manifestation in various types of head injury and to attempt a correlation between the neurological signs, ocular signs, GCS (Glassgow Coma Scale). It was a non-interventional study to analyze correlation, if any, between Ocular trauma & head injuries. This study aims to record incidence & various modes of injury which can cause serious eye involvement with mild head injury as well as serious head injury with minimal eye involvement. Materials & Methods: 60 consecutive patients presenting to Ophthalmology outpatient department or accident and emergency department of PESIMSR, with ocular trauma from the period August 2013-April 2015 were included in the study. This was an added arm of the study of ocular injuries, approved by the hospital ethical review board. And it did not include any additional intervention or investigation. Results: In our study 31 patients were associated with head injury along with associated ocular injury. Out of 31, 27 were males and only 4 were females. Out of 31, 21 were two wheelerdrivers,2 were two wheeler passengers, 4 were four wheeler passengers, 4 were pedestrians.25 patients had mild head injury,2 patients had moderate head injury,4 patients had severe head injury. Out of 31, 6 patients had traumatic optic neuropathy. Invariably all patients of skull fracture were associated with periorbital edema/ecchymosis. Out of 31, 20 patients had Ocular Trauma Score (OTS) -100.OTS between 80-100 -1 patient. 55-80 -2 patients, 45-55 -4patients. Conclusion: Those with head injury other than skull fractures had intraocular findings rather than extra ocular involvement. Thus it signifies the importance of intraocular findings in relation to head injury.
Simultaneous Bilateral Ocular Trauma: Clinical Presentation, Epidemiology and Patterns of Injury
2021
Purpose This study aimed to determine the frequency, sociodemographic profile, clinical presentation, patterns of injury, treatment and outcomes of cases of simultaneous bilateral ocular trauma. Methods This retrospective study was conducted from May 2015 to April 2019. The medical records of patients presenting with bilateral ocular injuries were reviewed. Results Among the 402 patients presenting with ocular injuries, 34 (8.46%) had simultaneous bilateral ocular trauma. The majority were male (70.59%) and the mean age was 26.82 ± 15.86 years (range: 2–70 years).Most injuries occurred away from home (64.71%), mainly in roads (32.36%) or playgrounds (14.71%), and the vast majority (91.18%) were non-occupational in nature. Mechanical injuries were most frequent (47.05%), followed by cracker (17.65%), chemical (17.65%) and thermal (11.76%) injuries. Most cases occurred due to assault (26.47%), road traffic injury(20.59%) or sports/recreational activities (17.65%). The majority of vict...
Association of Cataract Surgery With Traffic Crashes
JAMA Ophthalmology, 2018
IMPORTANCE Cataracts are the most common cause of impaired vision worldwide and may increase a driver's risk of a serious traffic crash. The potential benefits of cataract surgery for reducing a patient's subsequent risk of traffic crash are uncertain. OBJECTIVE To conduct a comprehensive longitudinal analysis testing whether cataract surgery is associated with a reduction in serious traffic crashes where the patient was the driver.
Visual Risk Factors for Crash Involvement in Older Drivers With Cataract
Archives of Ophthalmology, 2001
Background: The Impact of Cataracts on Mobility project has previously demonstrated that older drivers with cataract have an elevated risk of motor vehicle collision. Objective: To examine what types of visual impairment serve as a basis of the increased crash risk of older drivers with cataract. Methods and Design: A cross-sectional analysis was performed on 274 older drivers with cataract and 103 older drivers free of cataract recruited through 12 eye care clinics for the purposes of the Impact of Cataracts on Mobility project, a prospective study on driving mobility in older adults with cataract. Tests measured visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, and disability glare for each eye separately using habitual distance correction. The dependent variable was involvement in at least 1 staterecorded, at-fault vehicle crash during the 5 years prior to study enrollment. Results: Logistic regression evaluated associations (odds ratios [ORs]) between visual function and crash involvement. Better and worse eye models defined on the basis of visual acuity were developed. Associations between each type of visual function and crash involvement were adjusted for age, sex, driving exposure, cognitive status, and other types of visual function. For both the better and worse eye models, contrast sensitivity was independently associated with crash involvement, whereas visual acuity and disability glare were not. Drivers with a history of crash involvement were 8 times more likely to have a serious contrast sensitivity deficit in the worse eye (defined as a Pelli-Robson score of 1.25 or less) than those who were crash-free (OR=7.86; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.55-39.79); this association was weaker for the better eye but still statistically significant (OR=3.78; 95% CI, 1.15-12.48). Crash-involved drivers were 6 times more likely to have severe contrast sensitivity impairment in both eyes (OR=5.78; 95% CI, 1.87-17.86) than crash-free drivers. A severe contrast sensitivity deficit in only 1 eye was still significantly associated with crash involvement (OR=2.70; 95% CI, 1.16-6.51). Conclusion: Severe contrast sensitivity impairment due to cataract elevates at-fault crash risk among older drivers, even when present in only 1 eye.
Impact of Cataract Surgery on Motor Vehicle Crash Involvement by Older Adults
JAMA, 2002
Context Motor vehicle crash risk in older drivers is elevated in those with cataract, a condition that impairs vision and is present in half of adults aged 65 years or older. Objective To determine the impact of cataract surgery on the crash risk for older adults in the years following surgery, compared with that of older adults who have cataract but who elect to not have surgery. Design, Setting, and Patients Prospective cohort study of 277 patients with cataract, aged 55 to 84 years at enrollment, who were recruited from 12 eye clinics in Alabama from October 1994 through March 1996, with 4 to 6 years of follow-up (to March 1999). Main Outcome Measure Police-reported motor vehicle crash occurrence involving patients who elected to have surgery compared with those who did not. Results Comparing the cataract surgery group (n=174) with the no surgery group (n=103), the rate ratio for crash involvement was 0.47 (95% confidence interval, 0.23-0.94), adjusting for race and baseline visual acuity and contrast sensitivity. The absolute rate reduction associated with cataract surgery was 4.74 crashes per million miles of travel. Conclusions In our sample, patients with cataract who underwent cataract surgery and intraocular lens implantation had half the rate of crash involvement during the follow-up period compared with cataract patients who did not undergo surgery. Cataract surgery thus may have a previously undocumented benefit for older driver safety, reducing subsequent crash rate.
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Factors associated with motor vehicle-related eye injuries presenting to the US emergency departments
Eye, 2019
Objectives To evaluate risk factors associated with eye injuries related to motor vehicle accidents (MVA) using a multicentre national database from the US emergency departments. Patients and methods A post hoc analysis from the Nationwide Emergency Department Sample database (2006-2013) was performed. Patients presenting to the emergency department (ED) with MVA-related trauma were included. We then evaluated patient-and centre-level risk factors associated with the presence of ocular trauma using a multivariable logistic regression model. Results A total of 2,745,152 patients from 2080 ED were identified for inclusion. Of these, 31,493 patients (1.14%) were associated with ocular trauma. The most common ocular injuries reported in our study were injury to ocular adnexa, orbital fractures, subconjunctival haemorrhage, foreign body on eye, and open wound of the eyeball. In univariate analysis, the other patient factors associated with ocular trauma included male gender, >1 chronic condition, admission during weekend, >1 bodily injury, higher injury severity score (ISS), presence of skull fractures and other bodily fractures, seizures, and initiation of mechanical ventilation after MVA. The hospital characteristics associated with highest incidence of ocular trauma included ED visit to a level I trauma centre and metropolitan teaching hospital. The independent factors associated with ocular trauma included younger age groups, male gender, weekend injury, presence of chronic conditions, >1 bodily injury, higher ISS, presence of skull fractures, ED admission to level-1 trauma centre, and ED admission to a teaching hospital. Conclusions This multicentre study establishes that both patient-and centre-level factors are associated with MVA-related eye injuries.
Motor Vehicle Crash-Associated Eye Injuries Presenting to U.S. Emergency Departments
Western Journal of Emergency Medicine, 2014
Motor vehicle crashes (MVCs) are a leading cause of injury in the United States (U.S.). Detailed knowledge of MVC eye injuries presenting to U.S. emergency departments (ED) will aid clinicians in diagnosis and management. The objective of the study was to describe the incidence, risk factors, and characteristics of non-fatal motor vehicle crash-associated eye injuries presenting to U.S. EDs from 2001 to 2008. Methods: Retrospective cross-sectional study using the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System All Injury Program (NEISS-AIP) from 2001 to 2008 to assess the risk of presenting to an ED with a MVC-associated eye injury in relation to specific occupant characteristics, including age, gender, race/ethnicity, disposition, and occupant (driver/passenger) status. Results: From 2001 to 2008, an estimated 75,028 MVC-associated eye injuries presented to U.S. EDs. The annual rate of ED-treated eye injuries resulting from MVCs declined during this study period. Males accounted for 59.6% of eye injuries (95% confidence interval [CI] 56.2%-63.0%). Rates of eye injury were highest among 15-19 year olds (5.8/10,000 people; CI 4.3-6.0/10,000) and among African Americans (4.5/10,000 people; CI 2.0-7.1/10,000). Drivers of motor vehicles accounted for 62.2% (CI 58.3%-66.1%) of ED-treated MVC eye injuries when occupant status was known. Contusion/Abrasion was the most common diagnosis (61.5%; CI 56.5%-66.4%). Among licensed U.S. drivers, 16-24 year olds had the highest risk (3.7/10,000 licensed drivers; CI 2.6-4.8/10,000). Conclusion: This study reports a decline in the annual incidence of ED-treated MVC-associated eye injuries. The risk of MVC eye injury is greatest among males, 15 to 19 year olds and African Americans.
EPIDEMIOLOGY AND OUTCOME OF OCULAR TRAUMA AMONG THE ROAD TRAFFIC ACCIDENT CASES ATTENDING A TERTIARY CARE HOSPITAL IN TRIPURA
Background: Agartala is one of the fastest growing cities in India. With rapid increase in the number of bikes and other motor vehicles, road traffic accidents (RTA) are also increasing sharply. Ocular trauma and resultant ophthalmic morbidities following RTA is common. Aims & Objective: To study the epidemiology and pattern of ocular trauma among the road traffic accident cases. Materials and Methods: A hospital based study was conducted during February to July 2013 among 700 road traffic cases attending Ophthalmology and Casualty Department of Agartala Govt. Medical College, Tripura. Descriptive statistics and chi square test were used for presenting data. Results: Out of 700 RTA patients 82.86% (580) were male and 17.14% (120) were female. Majority i.e. 76% (532) of the RTA cases occurred among the two- wheeler users, 42 (35.29 %) were drunk and 17% (119) of the RTA cased sustained ocular injuries. Among the ocular injury cases, 60% (72) suffered from ecchymosis. Out of 119 RTAs with ocular injuries, 22 (18.48%) had no PL at reporting due to due to ocular nerve injury and all of them failed to recover even after treatment. Conclusion: Two-wheeler accident is common and an important cause for loss of vision following RTA. Victims of RTA reporting with loss of vision due to optic nerve injury had poor visual prognosis. Hence, primary preventive approach through behaviour change communication among the bikers for promoting safe riding practices and strict implementation of traffic rules like riding at safe speed, wearing helmet and avoiding alcohol before driving are needed to prevent RTA associated blindness.
Clinical profile of patients of ocular trauma following road traffic accident presenting to the tertiary health care centre
Purpose-To study the clinical profile of patients of ocular trauma following road traffic accident presenting to the tertiary health care centre. Methods-This was a prospective observational study that involved 200 eyes of 100 patients with ocular trauma presenting with periorbital ecchymosis , subconjunctival haemorrhage ,lid laceration ,orbital fracture and posterior segment involvement. Diagnostic tests were done in all the patients. Results-There were 76 males and 24 females and the age group taken was 20 to 65 years. 59 patients belonged to the age group of 20 to 35 years, out of which were 46 males and 13 were females. 31 patients belonged to age group of 36 to 50 years, out of which 22 were males and 9 were females. 10 patients belonged to the age group of 51 to 65 years , out of which 8 were males and 2 were females. There were 88% closed globe injuries and 12% open globe injuries. Most common presentation in ocular trauma patients is ecchymosis(85%) followed by subconjuctival haemorrhage (78%),lid laceration(62%), orbital fracture(35%) , vitreous haemorrhage(28%) ,berlin's edema(26%), retinal detachment(14%) and macular hole(8%). Conclusion-Ocular trauma after road traffic accident is a common presentation among young males of age group 20 to 35 years mostly under influence of alcohol. Most common presentation of ocular truma following road traffic accident is ecchymosis followed by subconjuctival haemorrhage ,lid laceration, orbital fracture , vitreous haemorrhage ,berlin's edema, retinal detachment and macular hole. Road traffic accidents are common occurrence owing to increase in number of vehicles and various other reasons. Primary preventive approach such as avoidance of alcohol, strict adherence to traffic rules can prevent ocular morbidity associated with road traffic accidents.
Factors associated with ocular injuries among adult road traffic accident patients presenting at Mulago National Referral Hospital, Uganda
African Health Sciences, 2023
Background: Ocular trauma is the leading cause of unilateral blindness globally. Road traffic accidents are among the top risk factors for ocular trauma.
Prevalence of ocular injuries in a tertiary care hospital
IP innovative publication pvt. ltd, 2019
Aim and Objective: To study and analyse the profile of ocular injuries presenting to our hospital. Materials and Methods: A hospital based observational prospective study was conducted from January 2018 to January 2019. Data on demographics, nature and severity of injury, visual acuity at the time of presentation and during follow up were noted. A thorough evaluation included visual acuity, colour vision, anterior and posterior segment examination and imaging whenever needed was done. The patient was followed for three months and the best corrected visual acuity at the end of 12 weeks was recorded. Results: A total of 240 patients were recorded of whom males outnumbered the females and children and constituted 63%(151) of people involved. Most common cause being RTA occurred that in the age group 21-30 years. With maximum number of accidents from two-wheeler followed by industrial injuries. Injuries involving anterior segment constituted 77% (184) and injuries involving posterior segment constituted 13%(31) and that both anterior segment and posterior segment injuries constituted 11%(26). The nature of the injury differed in different age groups. Visual prognosis was better in patients who presented early and underwent appropriate treatment. Conclusion: Educating community regarding safe riding practices, use of preventive measures, strict implementation of the traffic rules and avoiding alcohol while driving will reduce the incidence of Road traffic accidents and prevent ocular morbidity. Preventive ophthalmology plays a crucial role in educating the industrial workers to use the protective googles during their work.
Epidemiology and pattern of motorcycle accident related ocular injuries in a rural tertiary care hospital in Eastern India
Innovative Publication, 2016
In this study we want to evaluate the epidemiology and pattern of ocular injury among motorcycle accident cases attending a rural tertiary care hospital in eastern India. This cross sectional prospective noninterventional study was conducted in a rural tertiary care hospital in eastern India. The data collected were demographic variables, presenting complaints, time interval between injury and reporting to the hospital, whether injured person was motorcycle driver, rider or pedestrian, history of any treatment received, intake of alcohol and use of helmet at the time of accident. The detailed ophthalmic examination with type and extend of ocular injury was documented. The best corrected visual acuity at the end of 6 months graded as good(visual acuity >6/18), fair (6/18-6/60) or poor (<6/60). In this study 671patients were included and total 697 eyes were studied. The right eye injury was noted in 386(57.5%) cases, left eye injury in 213(31.8%) cases and 72(10.7%) patients had bilateral ocular injuries. There were 632(94.18%) male and 39(5.82%) female cases. The commonest affected age group was 21-30 years with 231(34.4%) cases. Most of the affected victims were unemployed youth 229(34.1%). Most common time interval between injury and reporting to the hospital was 12-24 hrs of 397(59.2%). Only 273 (40.7%) patients were wearing a helmet at the time of accident and 256(38.2%) patients consumed alcohol before the incidence of accident. The eyelid ecchymosis in 219(31.4%) eyes was the commonest type of ocular injury detected in our study. The conservative treatment was done in 551(79.0%) eyes while 146(21.0%) eyes required surgical repair. The final good visual acuity was of 6/6 to 6/18 in589 (84.5%) eyes and only15 (2.2%) eyes had poor visual acuity. This study enhances our understanding of ocular injuries by motorcycle accidents. Awareness about road safety, safe road infrastructure and enforcement of safety laws can minimize ocular injuries and its consequences on vision.
Prediction of severe eye injuries in automobile accidents: static and dynamic rupture pressure of the eye
Annual proceedings / Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine. Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine, 2004
The purpose of this paper is to determine the static and dynamic rupture pressures of 20 human and 20 porcine eyes. This study found the static test results show an average rupture pressure for porcine eyes of 1.00 +/- 0.18 MPa while the average rupture pressure for human eyes was 0.36 +/- 0.20 MPa. For dynamic loading, the average porcine rupture pressure was 1.64 +/- 0.32 MPa, and the average rupture pressure for human eyes was 0.91 +/- 0.29 MPa. Significant differences are found between average rupture pressures from all four groups of tests (p = 0.01). A risk function has been developed and predicts a 50% risk of globe rupture at 1.02 MPa, 1.66 MPa, 0.35 MPa, and 0.90 MPa internal pressure for porcine static, porcine dynamic, human static, and human dynamic loading conditions, respectively.
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