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1973
Retention after rapid overt rehearsal was assessed in two experiments. In the first, 20-word lists were presented as four sets of five words alternating with delay intervals. Recall of items from terminal serial positions was higher when delays were either silent or filled with overt rehearsal than when delays were filled with number subtraction. However, overt rehearsal produced the poorest recall of items from early serial positions. Results of a second experiment showed that overt rehearsal did not enhance performance on either a delayed recall or a delayed recognition test. Rehearsal is less effective than other techniques of study and may be totally ineffective unless it is accompanied by additional processing.
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1975
Experiments were designed to clarify the influence of level of processing on the recall of once-presented items and to determine whether spacing effects for repeated items result from differential processing of the second presentation. In a modified Brown-Peterson paradigm, the lengths of distractor-filled spacing and retention intervals were varied, and subjects were cued to rehearse each presentation of five-word pentads in either a primary (rote) or secondary (elaborative) fashion. Type of rehearsal had large and systematic effects, but the pattern of spacing effects was inconsistent with that predicted by a processing interpretation. An alternative theory, in which type of processing is assumed to interact with encoding variability, seems consistent with the results.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory, 1975
A visual search orienting task and incidental free-recall test were used to examine the effects of "nonelaborative" rehearsal, as defined by Craik and Watkins, on recall from long-term store. Each of 16 40-wordi lists was to be searched for a different target item. To control the length of time targets remained in short-term store, the placement of targets in the search list was varied systematically. Performance on a free-recall test of all target items was a direct function of an item's search-list position, indicating that nonelaborative, "attending" rehearsal may increment an item's retrievability from long-term store. Recall was also dependent on a target's position in the series of target and search-list presentations with both primacy and recency effects present. Since neither differential rehearsal frequency nor differential depth of processing are adequate explanations for the primacy effect observed here, we propose that the search-or entry-set notions of Shiffrin and Anderson may explain the effect.
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1973
Three flee-recall experiments were motivated by the common-sense notion that an item should be better remembered and less easily forgotten the greater the rehearsal devoted to the item. In each experiment, four lists of words were presented and a cue to remember or to forget was presented after each word in a list in turn. Before each cue was presented, however, there was a variable blank period during which subjects were required to hold the current word in memory. Immediate and final recall of to-be-remembered and to-be-forgotten words were essentially independent of amount of rehearsal, whereas final recognition increased systematically with rehearsal. The results suggest the need for a distinction between rehearsal as a maintenance activity and rehearsal as a constructive activity.
Journal of Memory and Language, 1992
Performance on low frequency words is better than performance on higher frequency words in recognition memory. Many theorists have suggested that encoding factors contribute to this word frequency effect. In this paper we consider whether rehearsal, a specific encoding factor, contributes to the low frequency advantage in recognition memory. A rehearsal explanation predicts that, all other things being equal, the word frequency effect should increase with presentation duration. We present four experiments whose results are inconsistent with this prediction. We close by discussing two alternative explanations of the current results. 0
Journal of Experimental …, 2009
J. L. (2009). Rehearsal strategies can enlarge or diminish the spacing effect: Pure versus mixed lists and encoding strategy.
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior
Rote, repetitive Type 1 Rehearsal is defined as the continuous maintenance of information in memory using the minimum cognitive capacity necessary for maintenance. This definition is operationalized in an incidental paradigm where pairs of words are overtly rehearsed 1, 5, or 10 times (maintained for 1.33 to 13.33 seconds). An analysis of the types of errors made on a forced-choice recognition test supported the hypothesis that acoustic-phonemic components of the memory trace, as opposed to semantic and contextual components , are added or strengthened by this rehearsal process. Furthermore, it was observed that co rehearsed words did not effectively cue one another's recall. These results are discussed in relation to the usefulness of the distinction between Type I and Type II rehearsal. The terms Type I and Type II rehearsal were proposed by Craik and Lockhart (1972) to refer to two theoretically distinct kinds of processing. Type II rehearsal results in deep (semantic) analysis or mnemonic elaboration and is beneficial for long-term performance. Type I rehearsal was characterized as a rote repetition of analyses that have already been completed. This process was supposed to maintain information for immediate performance at a given level of analysis (within a levelof-analysis framework), but not to enhance long-term performance. A similar dichotomy was proposed by Woodward, Bjork, and Jongeward (1973). This article is primarily concerned with the definition of Type I rehearsal, and with the effects of Type I rehearsal on the memory code as measured, primarily, with a recognition procedure. Research on Type I rehearsal has been hampered and roundly criticized (e.g., Nelson, 1977) for lack of an operational definition.
Memory & Cognition, 2015
The causal role of verbal rehearsal in working memory has recently been called into question. For example, the SOB-CS (Serial Order in a Box-Complex Span) model assumes that there is no maintenance process for the strengthening of items in working memory, but instead a process of removal of distractors that are involuntarily encoded and create interference with memory items. In the present study, we tested the idea that verbal working memory performance can be accounted for without assuming a causal role of the verbal rehearsal process. We demonstrate in two experiments using a complex span task and a Brown-Peterson paradigm that increasing the number of repetitions of the same distractor (the syllable ba that was read aloud at each of its occurrences on screen) has a detrimental effect on the concurrent maintenance of consonants whereas the maintenance of spatial locations remains unaffected. A detailed analysis of the tasks demonstrates that accounting for this effect within the SOB-CS model requires a series of unwarranted assumptions leading to undesirable further predictions contradicted by available experimental evidence. We argue that the hypothesis of a maintenance mechanism based on verbal rehearsal that is impeded by concurrent articulation still provides the simplest and most compelling account of our results.
Journal of Memory and Language
We hypothesized that this pre-performance memory deficit-the next-in-line effect (Brenner, 1973)-should also occur in the context of mixed-list memory experiments where one of the conditions requires performance. As the testing ground for this prediction, we used the production effect (i.e., enhanced memory for words that are read aloud vs. silently). Specifically, we examined whether performance anticipation imposes a memorial cost on silent items studied in a mixed list (among "performed" aloud items) relative to a pure-silent list. Experiment 1 established this mixed-list cost in recognition (replicating Bodner, Taikh, & Fawcett, 2014). In Experiments 2 and 3, providing foreknowledge of the task to be performed on upcoming study items-thereby allowing participants to see when they would have to read aloud-led to diminished memory for silent items that were studied immediately before aloud items. In Experiment 4, in the absence of an experimenter, the pre-performance cost to silent items was non-significant (with Bayesian evidence supporting the null), consistent with the notion that the presence of the experimenter (a social factor) contributed to performance anticipation. Taken together, these results imply that performance anticipation drives the mixed-list cost of production shown by the silent items (and may explain costs observed in other memory research). Performance anticipation may reduce memory for pre-performance information by diverting attention away from that information.
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 2020
Despite the substantial evidence highlighting the role of selective rehearsal in item-method directed forgetting, recent work has suggested that forgetting may occur as a function of an active inhibitory mechanism that is more effortful than elaborative rehearsal processes. In the present work, we test this hypothesis by implementing a double-item presentation within the item-method directed forgetting paradigm. Participants studied two unrelated items at a time. Some words were followed by the same cue, and participants were instructed to remember or forget both items (pure condition). On other trials, participants were to remember one but forget the other word (mixed condition). Selective rehearsal and inhibition accounts make distinct predictions regarding memory performance in the double-item presentation. In Experiment 1, we compared recognition performance in the pure and mixed conditions, while in Experiment 2, we included a neutral baseline condition to further distinguish between the selective rehearsal and inhibition accounts. Contrary to the inhibition account but consistent with selective rehearsal, we found for both remember and forget items that recognition was greater in the mixed than in the pure condition. Recognition for forget items also did not differ from neutral items. We conclude that selective rehearsal, not inhibition, is responsible for item-method directed forgetting.
Brain and Language, 1981
The purpose of the present study was to determine if aphasic subject groups differentiated by the fluency of their verbal output employed rehearsal as a strategy for maintaining verbally coded information in primary memory. A task based upon the Brown-Peterson paradigm was administered to 10 fluent aphasic patients, 10 nonfluent aphasic patients, 10 right-brain-damaged patients, and 10 nonneurological patients. The findings indicate that the nonfluent aphasic patients did not rehearse the verbal information while the fluent aphasic, right-braindamaged, and nonneurological patients did rehearse. In addition, both fluent and nonfluent aphasic patients encoded significantiy less information into the memory system initially and performed worse on the task overall than right-brain-damaged and nonneurological patients. Warrington and Shallice (1969), Warrington, Logue, and Pratt (1971), and Heilman, Scholes, and Watson (1976) examined the memory span of aphasic individuals with repetition difficulties, specifically those with Broca's or conduction aphasia and in each study a span deficit was noted. Heilman et al. (1976) proposed that because these aphasic patients had difficulty with repetition, they were unable to rehearse and therefore they were unable to retain the information for the task. In each of these investigations mean scores of the number of items retained by the individual were obtained which relate the quantity of information the subject processes but do not examine the quality of the processing underlying this performance. More specific information can be gained by examining the response patterns themselves. Increased retention of the initial items This paper is based upon a dissertation submitted to the University of Florida by the first author with the guidance of a committee including the second author,
The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 2008
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 2000
Tacit within both lay and cognitive conceptualizations of learning is the notion that those conditions of learning that foster "good" retention do so by increasing both the probability and the speed of access to the relevant information. In 3 experiments, time pressure during recognition is shown to decrease accessibility more for words learned via elaborative rehearsal than for words learned via rote rehearsal, despite the fact that elaborative rehearsal is a more efficacious learning strategy as measured by the probability of access. In Experiment 1, participants learned each word using both types of rehearsal, and the results show that access to the products of elaborative rehearsal is more compromised by time pressure than is access to the products of rote rehearsal. The results of Experiment 2, in which each word was learned via either pure rote or pure elaborative rehearsal, exhibit the same pattern. Experiment 3, in which the authors used the response-signal procedure, provides evidence that this difference in accessibility owes not to differences in the rate of access to the 2 types of traces, but rather to the higher asymptotic level of stored information for words learned via elaborative rehearsal.
Many working memory (WM) models propose that the focus of attention (or primary memory) has a capacity limit of one to four items, and therefore, that performance on WM tasks involves retrieving some items from long-term (or secondary) memory (LTM). In the present study, we present evidence suggesting that recall of even one item on a WM task can involve retrieving it from LTM. The WM task required participants to make a deep (living/nonliving) or shallow ("e"/no "e") level-of-processing (LOP) judgment on one word and to recall the word after a 10-s delay on each trial. During the delay, participants either rehearsed the word or performed an easy or a hard math task. When the to-beremembered item could be rehearsed, recall was fast and accurate. When it was followed by a math task, recall was slower, error-prone, and benefited from a deeper LOP at encoding, especially for the hard math condition. The authors suggest that a covert-retrieval mechanism may have refreshed the item during easy math, and that the hard math condition shows that even a single item cannot be reliably held in WM during a sufficiently distracting task-therefore, recalling the item involved retrieving it from LTM. Additionally, performance on a final free recall (LTM) test was better for items recalled following math than following rehearsal, suggesting that initial recall following math involved elaborative retrieval from LTM, whereas rehearsal did not. The authors suggest that the extent to which performance on WM tasks involves retrieval from LTM depends on the amounts of disruption to both rehearsal and covert-retrieval/refreshing maintenance mechanisms.
Journal of experimental psychology, 1974
Both overt and silent rehearsal conditions were examined under both simultaneous and successive free-recall list presentation, using unrelated words both on a varied-order multitrial list and on another list with one isolated item. Simultaneous presentation produced better recall and increased rehearsals which were more consistent both with input and recall output orders than under successive presentation, but neither showed substantial relationships of rehearsal to recall organization. Item rehearsal-recall correspondences were minimal on later trials, reflecting maximal rehearsal of newly recalled items. Isolated-item recall was markedly facilitated despite no increase in rehearsals thereof, contrary to Rundus' findings in 1971. Thus, notable exceptions exist to any causal dependence of free-recall performance upon rehearsal activity, possible explanations for which are discussed.
Psychonomic Bulletin & …, 2007
Memory & Cognition, 2004
Rehearsal speed has traditionally been seen to be the prime determinant of individual differences in memory span. Recent studies, in the main using young children as the participant population, have suggested other contributors to span performance, notably contributions from long-term memory and forgetting and retrieval processes occurring during recall. In the current research we used structural equation modelling to explore at the construct level individual differences in immediate serial recall with respect to rehearsal, search, and speed of access to lexical memory. We replicate standard short-term phenomena; we show that the variables that influence children's span performance influence adult performance in the same way; and we show that lexical memory access appears to be a more potent source of individual differences in immediate memory than either rehearsal speed or search factors.
Memory & Cognition, 2004
Recollection-based recognition memory judgments benefit greatly from effortful elaborative encoding, whereas familiarity-based judgments are much less sensitive to such manipulations. In this study, we have examined whether rote rehearsal under divided attention might produce the opposite dissociation, benefiting familiarity more than recollection. Subjects rehearsed word pairs during the "distractor" phase of a working memory span task, and were then given a surprise memory test for the distractor items at the end of the experiment. Experiment 1 demonstrated that increasing rehearsal elevated the recognition rate for intact and rearranged pairs, but neither associative recognition accuracy nor implicit fragment completion benefited from rehearsal. The results suggest that rote rehearsal leads to a greater increase in familiarity than in recollection, and that the increase in observed familiarity cannot be attributed to effects of repetition priming. In Experiment 2, we tested item recognition with the remember/know procedure, and the results supported the conclusions of Experiment 1. Moreover, a signal detection model of remember/know performance systematically overpredicted rehearsal increases in remember rates, and this worsened when high-rehearsal items were assumed to be more variable in strength. The results suggest that rote rehearsal can dissociate familiarity from recollection at the time of encoding and that item recognition cannot be fully accommodated within a one-dimensional signal detection model.
Incremental rehearsal (IR) is a highly effective intervention that uses high repetition and a high ratio of known to unknown items with linearly spaced known items between the new items. It has been hypothesized that narrowly spaced practice would result in quick learning, whereas items that are widely spaced would result in longer-term retention. The current study examined the effect of spacing by teaching vocabulary words to 36 fourth-grade students. Each student was randomly assigned to a widely spaced IR condition (i.e., one unknown item, one known item, one unknown item, two known items, one unknown item, three known items, and an increase in the number of known items presented each time by one) or an IR condition in which spacing increased exponentially (IR-Exp; i.e., one unknown item, one known item, one unknown item, two known items, one unknown item, four known items, and one unknown item, eight known items). The results indicated that the students in the study retained twice as much information with the widely spaced IR than with the IR-Exp condition, but the latter required half as much time. IR and IR-Exp were equally efficient, but IR continues to be superior to all other flashcard approaches in improving retention. C 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Journal of Memory and Language, 2008
The spacing effect is the commonly observed phenomenon that memory for spaced repetitions is better than memory for massed repetitions. To further investigate the role of rehearsal in spacing effects, three experiments were conducted. With pure lists we found spacing effects in free recall when spacing intervals were relatively long (Experiments 1, 2 and 3), but not when spacing intervals were relatively short (Experiments 2 and 3). In contrast, with mixed lists spacing effects emerged at both short spacing intervals and long spacing intervals (Experiment 3). Additional analyses on the combined pure-list data revealed that the correlation between the primacy advantage and the spacing effect in Quadrants 2 through 4 was positive for all-massed lists and negative for all-spaced lists. This provides some first evidence for the zero-sum nature of the spacing effect in pure lists. The need to incorporate assumptions about rehearsal in theories of spacing is discussed.
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1972
Rehearsal has been viewed as serving to maintain items in short-term memory (STM) and transfer information to long-term memory. This experiment contrasted that position with one that assigns rehearsal the single function of maintaining items in STM. Lists were first recalled either immediately after presentation, after a 15-sec silent delay (which allowed the greatest amount of rehearsal) or after 15 sec of rehearsal-preventing activity (filled delay). Inmal recall of words from terminal serial positions was lowest in the filled delay condition. Results were opposite on a final free-recall test; filled delay produced h~ghest recall of terminal 1terns. Encoding and retrieval interpretations of the results were considered.
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