The New Military Urbanism

Scapegoat Journal: LIFE

Theory & Event, 2007

In an inconspicuous footnote towards the end of his Prison Notebooks, Antonio Gramsci presents us with a startling observation. Writing in a very different time and place, he suggests that a political-geographic rift had emerged between urbanism and cosmopolitanism on the one hand, and ruralism and nationalism on the other. Gramsci offers the intriguing thought that, "these conflicting attitudes can in a sense be seen as two sides of the coin of fascist imperialism." 2 While 'fascist' may not be an apt term to describe contemporary imperialism, the rest of the equation seems strangely fitting 3. I characterize this observation as 'startling' in part because it speaks to a formidable challenge of politics and geography in our own time, but also because it remains an overlooked footnote. This paper takes Gramsci's observation seriously. In fact, my analysis is crafted in the shadows of this footnote, and in its interstices with another. The second note-not a literal footnote like the first-is instead a social 'fact' that has largely been treated as a footnote, a point of marginal importance. This second footnote tells us that the militaries of advanced capitalist nations with voluntary forces are made up overwhelmingly of rural soldiers, and that rural areas have become the heartland of militarism and 'authentic' patriotism. I will suggest that this second footnote is extraordinarily important in that it is a constitutive element of contemporary forms of organized violence. Far from a banal detail of 'location', urban/rural geographies of militarism and military service are a key to the historical geographies of citizenship that constitute our violent present. Armed conflict, war, and terrorism are today increasingly urban affairs. From Fallujah to Baghdad, to New York and London, organized human violence explicitly targets cities. A brave new urban geography is said to define armed conflict in much of the world, and reshapes militarized policing and surveillance domestically. State and non-state responses to this global city violence are also practiced at the urban scale, with national border control, surveillance and counter-terrorist initiatives, and military training exercises, increasingly working through urban space. There has been a marked and now well-documented urban revolution in military affairs that is not limited to the current war in Iraq, but is certainly a stark feature of violence there 4. Indeed, the revolutionaries in military affairs champion urban warfare and imagineer light and flexible fighting forces. But even with the demise of the Revolution in Military Affairs leadership, specifically Donald Rumsfeld's departure in late 2006, the growing skepticism surrounding a future of winning network-centric wars, and a broad consensus that US efforts in Iraq and the ideas guiding them have failed, urban warfare is still considered almost 'inevitable'-a result of the forward march of global urbanization as much as of ideologies of military reorganization. George W. Bush's plan for a 21,500member troop surge in Baghdad, and the installment of Lt. General David Petreaus, a leader of (failed) urban warfare in Mosul, as top commander in Iraq may face stark criticism from many corners, but the conviction that warfare itself has radically changed from a clash of national armies in non-urban theatres to a future of irregular warfare in city streets lives on.

2014

2006

The Military Law and the Law of War Review

Preparing for the inevitability of urban warfare Colonel (retired) Randall Bagwell, US Army* * Colonel (retired) Randall Bagwell served in the US Army for over 30 years in the infantry and as a Judge Advocate General (JAG) officer. Colonel Bagwell is now the Director of International Humanitarian Law for the American Red Cross. The opinions expressed in this paper are his personally and should not be attributed to the

International Review of the Red Cross, 2010

Armies have traditionally avoided cities and siege operations. Fighting for and in cities is costly, slow, and often inconclusive. But sometimes they are unavoidable, either because they are located on main road or rail junctions or because of their value as political and/or economic prizes. Urban expansion in both north and south has made cities today the main theatres of military and humanitarian operations.Armies' structures, equipment, and doctrines are undergoing a process of adaptation. Manoeuvre has given way to fire power and protection for the troops as the decisive elements of military power. While heavy fire power does considerable damage and causes civilians to flee their homes, operations using protection techniques are only suitable for stabilization. Moreover, their success depends essentially on the willingness of troops to make sacrifices, and on support from the public.

FOOTPRINT, 2017

2017

This paper provides an overview of the historical development, contemporary discourses, and challenges of the urbanization of warfare for international humanitarian law (IHL). By drawing on critical urbanism studies, official military documents, and doctrines, this paper highlights the mutually constitutive relationship between warfare and militarization, with a particular focus on the American armed forces and argues that IHL in its current form is unable to guarantee a humanitarian conduct of war in compliance with its principles of proportionality and precaution. Using the invasion of Iraq in 2003 as a case study, this paper will shed light on the decisive role of the occupying power and its deliberate transformation of the urban battlefield into a militarized zone by targeting dual-use infrastructure and employing discourse and techniques on the ground to securitize urban zones. Therefore, by arguing in favour of the application of customary IHL, which emerges from state practice rather than treaties or conventions, an attempt can be made to close these loopholes. As a more general conclusion, this paper suggests that the mutually constitutive relationship between urbanization and warfare has to become more explicit in military doctrines in order to highlight the responsibility of occupying forces.

ACTA 2023 - War and the City: The Effects of Armed Conflicts on Urban Space and Population, 2024

As the Turkish Commission of Military History and the Turkish National Defense University, we were honored to host the 48th International Congress of the International Commission of Military History in İstanbul between 3-8 September 2023. This congress had historical importance for us as it coincided with the centenary of the establishment of the Republic of Türkiye. With 140 participants from 29 countries, the congress featured an extensive academic program organized into 14 parallel sessions over four days. 53 scholars presented their research, contributing to a vibrant exchange of ideas. Beyond the academic sessions, a rich cultural program provided participants with the opportunity to experience Istanbul’s unique historical and cultural heritage, a city that has long been a crossroads of civilizations and the capital of empires. The congress’s theme, “War and the City: The Effects of Armed Conflicts on Urban Space and Population” addressed the evolving relationship between warfare and urban environments. Historically, this relationship was characterized by gradual change, but the 19th century witnessed a marked acceleration in transformation due to the increasing complexity of warfare. Technological advancements played a pivotal role in this evolution. Lind’s four-generation framework for understanding warfare is instrumental in contextualizing and analyzing these changes. The first generation, characterized by ancient battles with basic military equipment and tactics, had limited impact on civilians and cities. The second generation, with innovations such as new weapons and compulsory military service, saw increased effects on urban spaces and populations, lasting until WWII. The third and fourth generations, representing modern warfare, emerged during WWII. The advent of air power extended the battlefield beyond traditional front lines, significantly increasing the impact on civilians and urban areas. Cities and their inhabitants became direct military targets to undermine enemy morale and disrupt tactics. Unconventional tactics, including terrorism and proxy wars, further blurred lines between civilians and combatants, highlighting the profound and lasting effects of armed conflicts on urban areas. These developments underscore the profound and lasting effects of armed conflicts on urban spaces and populations.

ACTA 2023 - War and the City: The Effects of Armed Conflicts on Urban Space and Population, 2024

As the Turkish Commission of Military History and the Turkish National Defense University, we were honored to host the 48th International Congress of the International Commission of Military History in İstanbul between 3-8 September 2023. This congress had historical importance for us as it coincided with the centenary of the establishment of the Republic of Türkiye. With 140 participants from 29 countries, the congress featured an extensive academic program organized into 14 parallel sessions over four days. 53 scholars presented their research, contributing to a vibrant exchange of ideas. Beyond the academic sessions, a rich cultural program provided participants with the opportunity to experience Istanbul’s unique historical and cultural heritage, a city that has long been a crossroads of civilizations and the capital of empires. The congress’s theme, “War and the City: The Effects of Armed Conflicts on Urban Space and Population” addressed the evolving relationship between warfare and urban environments. Historically, this relationship was characterized by gradual change, but the 19th century witnessed a marked acceleration in transformation due to the increasing complexity of warfare. Technological advancements played a pivotal role in this evolution. Lind’s four-generation framework for understanding warfare is instrumental in contextualizing and analyzing these changes. The first generation, characterized by ancient battles with basic military equipment and tactics, had limited impact on civilians and cities. The second generation, with innovations such as new weapons and compulsory military service, saw increased effects on urban spaces and populations, lasting until WWII. The third and fourth generations, representing modern warfare, emerged during WWII. The advent of air power extended the battlefield beyond traditional front lines, significantly increasing the impact on civilians and urban areas. Cities and their inhabitants became direct military targets to undermine enemy morale and disrupt tactics. Unconventional tactics, including terrorism and proxy wars, further blurred lines between civilians and combatants, highlighting the profound and lasting effects of armed conflicts on urban areas. These developments underscore the profound and lasting effects of armed conflicts on urban spaces and populations.