Infrared Transmission Spectra for Extrasolar Giant Planets

The Astrophysical Journal, 2010

We report here the first infrared spectrum of the hot-Jupiter XO-1b.

Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 2013

We present an optical to near-infrared transmission spectrum of the hot Jupiter HAT-P-1b, based on Hubble Space Telescope observations, covering the spectral regime from 0.29 to 1.027 μm with Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS), which is coupled with a recent Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) transit (1.087 to 1.687 μm). We derive refined physical parameters of the HAT-P-1 system, including an improved orbital ephemeris. The transmission spectrum shows a strong absorption signature shortward of 0.55 μm, with a strong blueward slope into the near-ultraviolet. We detect atmospheric sodium absorption at a 3.3σ significance level, but find no evidence for the potassium feature. The red data imply a marginally flat spectrum with a tentative absorption enhancement at wavelength longer than ∼0.85 μm. The STIS and WFC3 spectra differ significantly in absolute radius level (4.3 ± 1.6 pressure scaleheights), implying strong optical absorption in the atmosphere of HAT-P-1b. The optical to near-infrared difference cannot be explained by stellar activity, as simultaneous stellar activity monitoring of the G0V HAT-P-1b host star and its identical companion show no significant activity that could explain the result. We compare the complete STIS and WFC3 transmission spectrum with theoretical atmospheric models which include haze, sodium and an extra optical absorber. We find that both an optical absorber and a supersolar sodium to water abundance ratio might be a scenario explaining the HAT-P-1b observations. Our results suggest that strong optical absorbers may be a dominant atmospheric feature in some hot Jupiter exoplanets.

Astrophysical Journal, 2012

Exoplanetary science is one of the fastest evolving fields of today's astronomical research, continuously yielding unexpected and surprising results. Ground-based planet-hunting surveys, together with dedicated space missions such as Kepler and CoRoT, are delivering an ever-increasing number of exoplanets, over 690, and ESA's Gaia mission will escalate the exoplanetary census into the several thousands. The next logical step is the characterization of these new worlds. What is their nature? Why are they as they are? Use of the Hubble Space Telescope and Spitzer Space Telescope to probe the atmospheres of transiting hot, gaseous exoplanets has opened perspectives unimaginable even just 10 years ago, demonstrating that it is indeed possible with current technology to address the ambitious goal of characterizing the atmospheres of these alien worlds. However, these successful measurements have also shown the difficulty of understanding the physics and chemistry of these exotic environments when having to rely on a limited number of observations performed on a handful of objects. To progress substantially in this field, a dedicated facility for exoplanet characterization, able to observe a statistically significant number of planets over time and a broad spectral range will be essential. Additionally, the instrument design (e.g., detector performances, photometric stability) will be tailored to optimize the extraction of the astrophysical signal. In this paper, we analyze the performance and tradeoffs of a 1.2/1.4 m space telescope for exoplanet transit spectroscopy from the visible to the mid-IR. We present the signal-to-noise ratio as a function of integration time and stellar magnitude/spectral type for the acquisition of spectra of planetary atmospheres for a variety of scenarios: hot, warm, and temperate planets orbiting stars ranging in spectral type from hot F-to cooler M-dwarfs. Our results include key examples of known planets (e.g., HD 189733b, GJ 436b, GJ 1214b, and Cancri 55 e) and simulations of plausible terrestrial and gaseous planets, with a variety of thermodynamical conditions. We conclude that even most challenging targets, such as super-Earths in the habitable zone of late-type stars, are within reach of an M-class, space-based spectroscopy mission.

Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union, 2010

There have recently been a flood of ground-based detections of the near-infrared thermal emission of a number of hot Jupiters. Although these near-infrared detections have revealed a great deal about the atmospheric characteristics of individual hot Jupiters, the question is: what information does this ensemble of near-infrared detections reveal about the atmospheric dynamics and reradiation of all hot Jupiters? I explore whether there is any correlation between how brightly these planets shine in the near-infrared compared to their incident stellar flux, as was theoretically predicted to be the case. Secondly, I look for whether there is any correlation between the host star's activity and the planet's near-infrared emission, like there is in the mid-infrared, where Spitzer observations have revealed a correlation between the host star activity with the presence, or lack thereof, of a temperature inversion and a hot stratosphere.

Astronomy and Astrophysics, 2020

Aims. We study the effect of disequilibrium processes (photochemistry and vertical transport) on mixing ratio profiles of neutral species and on the simulated spectra of a hot Jupiter exoplanet that orbits stars of various spectral types. We additionally address the impact of stellar activity that should be present, to various degrees, in all stars with convective envelopes. Methods. We used the VULCAN chemical kinetic code to compute number densities of species in irradiated planetary atmospheres. The temperature-pressure profile of the atmosphere was computed with the HELIOS code. We also utilized the τ-REx forward model to predict the spectra of planets in primary and secondary eclipses. In order to account for the stellar activity, we made use of the observed solar extreme ultraviolet (XUV) spectrum taken from Virtual Planetary Laboratory as a proxy for an active sun-like star. Results. We find large changes in the mixing ratios of most chemical species in planets orbiting A-type stars, which radiate strong XUV flux thereby inducing a very effective photodissociation. For some species, these changes can propagate very deep into the planetary atmosphere to pressures of around 1 bar. To observe disequilibrium chemistry we favor hot Jupiters with temperatures T eq = 1000 K and ultra-hot Jupiters, with T eq ≈ 3000 K,which also have temperature inversion in their atmospheres. On the other hand, disequilibrium calculations predict no noticeable changes in spectra of planets with intermediate temperatures. We also show that stellar activity similar to that of the modern Sun drives important changes in mixing ratio profiles of atmospheric species. However, these changes take place at very high atmospheric altitudes and thus do not affect predicted spectra. Finally, we estimate that the effect of disequilibrium chemistry in planets orbiting nearby bright stars could be robustly detected and studied with future missions with spectroscopic capabilities in infrared such as James Webb Space Telescope and ARIEL.

Currently, the analysis of transmission spectra is the most successful technique to probe the chemical composition of exoplanet atmospheres. However, the accuracy of these measurements is constrained by observational limitations and the diversity of possible atmospheric compositions. Here, we show the UV–VIS–IR transmission spectrum of Jupiter as if it were a transiting exoplanet, obtained by observing one of its satellites, Ganymede, while passing through Jupiter's shadow, i.e., during a solar eclipse from Ganymede. The spectrum shows strong extinction due to the presence of clouds (aerosols) and haze in the atmosphere and strong absorption features from CH 4. More interestingly, the comparison with radiative transfer models reveals a spectral signature, which we attribute here to a Jupiter stratospheric layer of crystalline H 2 O ice. The atomic transitions of Na are also present. These results are relevant for the modeling and interpretation of giant transiting exoplanets. They also open a new technique to explore the atmospheric composition of the upper layers of Jupiter's atmosphere. Key words: eclipses – planets and satellites: atmospheres – planets and satellites: gaseous planets – planets and satellites: individual (Jupiter, Ganymede)

The Astrophysical Journal, 2008

We present Spitzer Space Telescope time series photometry of the exoplanet system HD 189733 spanning two times of secondary eclipse, when the planet passes out of view behind the parent star. We estimate the relative eclipse depth in 5 distinct bands and find the planet-to-star flux ratio to be 0.256±0.014% (3.6 µm), 0.214±0.020% (4.5 µm), 0.310 ± 0.034% (5.8 µm), 0.391 ± 0.022% (8.0 µm), and 0.598 ± 0.038% (24 µm). For consistency, we re-analyze a previously published time series to deduce a contrast ratio in an additional band, 0.519 ± 0.020% (16 µm). Our data are strongly inconsistent with a Planck spectrum, and we clearly detect emission near 4 µm as predicted by published theoretical models in which this feature arises from a corresponding opacity window. Unlike recent results for the exoplanet HD 209458b, we find that the emergent spectrum from HD 189733b is best matched by models that do not include an atmospheric temperature inversion. Taken together, these two studies provide initial observational support for the idea that hot Jupiter atmospheres diverge into two classes, in which a thermal inversion layer is present for the more strongly irradiated objects.

The Astrophysical Journal, 2010

We compute models of the transmission spectra of planets HD 209458b, HD 189733b, and generic hot Jupiters. We examine the effects of temperature, surface gravity, and metallicity for the generic planets as a guide to understanding transmission spectra in general. We find that carbon dioxide absorption at 4.4 and 15 μm is prominent at high metallicity, and is a clear metallicity indicator. For HD 209458b and HD 189733b, we compute spectra for both one-dimensional and three-dimensional model atmospheres and examine the differences between them. The differences are usually small, but can be large if atmospheric temperatures are near important chemical abundance boundaries. The calculations for the three-dimensional atmospheres, and their comparison with data, serve as constraints on these dynamical models that complement the secondary eclipse and light curve data sets. For HD 209458b, even if TiO and VO gases are abundant on the dayside, their abundances can be considerably reduced on the cooler planetary limb. However, given the predicted limb temperatures and TiO abundances, the model's optical opacity is too high. For HD 189733b we find a good match with some infrared data sets and constrain the altitude of a postulated haze layer. For this planet, substantial differences can exist between the transmission spectra of the leading and trailing hemispheres, which are an excellent probe of carbon chemistry. In thermochemical equilibrium, the cooler leading hemisphere is methane-dominated, and the hotter trailing hemisphere is COdominated, but these differences may be eliminated by non-equilibrium chemistry due to vertical mixing. It may be possible to constrain the carbon chemistry of this planet, and its spatial variation, with James Webb Space Telescope.

The Astrophysical Journal, 2008

We highlight the potential importance of gaseous TiO and VO opacity on the highly irradiated close-in giant planets. The atmospheres of these planets naturally fall into two classes that are somewhat analogous to the Mand L-type dwarfs. Those that are warm enough to have appreciable opacity due to TiO and VO gases we term the "pM Class" planets, and those that are cooler, such that Ti and V are predominantly in solid condensates, we term "pL Class" planets. The optical spectra of pL Class planets are dominated by neutral atomic Na and K absorption. We calculate model atmospheres for these planets, including pressure-temperature profiles, spectra, and characteristic radiative time constants. Planets that have temperature inversions (hot stratospheres) of ∼2000 K and appear "anomalously" bright in the mid infrared at secondary eclipse, as was recently found for planets HD 149026b and HD 209458b, we term the pM Class. Molecular bands of TiO, VO, H 2 O, and CO will be seen in emission, rather than absorption. This class of planets absorbs incident flux and emits thermal flux from high in their atmospheres. Consequently, they will have large day/night temperature contrasts and negligible phase shifts between orbital phase and thermal emission light curves, because radiative timescales are much shorter than possible dynamical timescales. The pL Class planets absorb incident flux deeper in the atmosphere where atmospheric dynamics will more readily redistribute absorbed energy. This leads to cooler day sides, warmer night sides, and larger phase shifts in thermal emission light curves. We briefly examine the transit radii for both classes of planets. The boundary between these classes is particularly dependent on the incident flux from the parent star, and less so on the temperature of the planet's internal adiabat (which depends on mass and age), and surface gravity. Around a Sun-like primary, for solar composition, this boundary likely occurs at ∼0.04-0.05 AU, but uncertainties remain. We apply these results to pM Class transiting planets that are observable with the Spitzer Space Telescope, including HD 209458b, WASP-1b, TrES-3b, TrES-4b, HD 149026b, and others. The eccentric transiting planets HD 147506b and HD 17156b alternate between the classes during their orbits. Thermal emission in the optical from pM Class planets is significant red-ward of 400 nm, making these planets attractive targets for optical detection via Kepler, COROT, and from the ground. The difference in the observed day/night contrast between υ Andromeda b (pM Class) and HD 189733b (pL Class) is naturally explained in this scenario.

The Astrophysical Journal, 2011

We explore the transmission spectrum of the Neptune-class exoplanet GJ 436b, including the possibility that its atmospheric opacity is dominated by a variety of nonequilibrium chemical products. We also validate our transmission code by demonstrating close agreement with analytic models that use only Rayleigh scattering or water vapor opacity. We find broad disagreement with radius variations predicted by another published model. For GJ 436b, the relative coolness of the planet's atmosphere, along with its implied high metallicity, may make it dissimilar in character compared to "hot Jupiters." Some recent observational and modeling efforts suggest low relative abundances of H 2 O and CH 4 present in GJ 436b's atmosphere, compared to calculations from equilibrium chemistry. We include these characteristics in our models and examine the effects of absorption from methanederived higher order hydrocarbons. To our knowledge, the effects of these nonequilibrium chemical products on the spectra of close-in giant planets has not previously been investigated. Significant absorption from HCN and C 2 H 2 are found throughout the infrared, while C 2 H 4 and C 2 H 6 are less easily seen. We perform detailed simulations of JWST observations, including all likely noise sources, and find that we will be able to constrain chemical abundance regimes from this planet's transmission spectrum. For instance, the width of the features at 1.5, 3.3, and 7 µm indicates the amount of HCN versus C 2 H 2 present. The NIRSpec prism mode will be useful due to its large spectral range and the relatively large number of photo-electrons recorded per spectral resolution element. However, extremely bright host stars like GJ 436 may be better observed with a higher spectroscopic resolution mode in order to avoid detector saturation. We find that observations with the MIRI low resolution spectrograph should also have high signal-to-noise in the 5 − 10 µm range due to the brightness of the star and the relatively low spectral resolution (R ∼ 100) of this mode.