8 Role of chick Sox11 in central nervous system development

Journal of Anatomy, 2001

Journal of Anatomy, 2001

Journal of Anatomy, 2001

2012

2 Instituto do Cérebro – InCe, Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein – HIAE, São Paulo (SP), Brazil; Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto – FAMERP – São José do Rio Preto (SP), Brazil. 3 Department of Diagnostic Imaging and Instituto do Cérebro – InCe, Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein – HIAE, São Paulo (SP), Brazil. 4 Department of Diagnostic Imaging, Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein – HIAE, São Paulo (SP), Brazil. 5 Instituto do Cérebro – InCe, Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein – HIAE, São Paulo (SP), Brazil. 6 Department of Clinical Engineering, Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein – HIAE, São Paulo (SP), Brazil. 7 Department of Pharmacology and Laboratório Interdisciplinar de Neurociências Clínicas – LiNC, Universidade Federal de São Paulo – UNIFESP, São Paulo (SP), Brazil. 8 University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign (IL), Estados Unidos. 9 Department of Bioenginnering at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana-C...

Microscopy and Microanalysis

Journal of Biological Chemistry, 2011

Technical Tips Online, 1997

Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 2010

The ability to trace or identify specific molecules within a specific anatomic location provides insight into metabolic pathways, tissue components, and tracing of solute transport mechanisms. With the increasing use of small animals for research, such imaging must have sufficiently high spatial resolution to allow anatomic localization as well as sufficient specificity and sensitivity to provide an accurate description of the molecular distribution and concentration. Imaging methods based on electromagnetic radiation, such as PET, SPECT, MRI, and CT, are increasingly applicable because of recent advances in novel scanner hardware and image reconstruction software and the availability of novel molecules that have enhanced sensitivity in these methodologies. Small-animal PET has been advanced by the development of detector arrays that provide higher resolution and positron-emitting elements that allow new molecular tracers to be labeled. Micro-MRI has been improved in terms of spatial resolution and sensitivity through increased magnet field strength and the development of special-purpose coils and associated scan protocols. Of particular interest is the associated ability to image local mechanical function and solute transport processes, which can be directly related to the molecular information. This ability is further strengthened by the synergistic integration of PET with MRI. Micro-SPECT has been improved through the use of coded aperture imaging approaches as well as image reconstruction algorithms that can better deal with the photon-limited scan data. The limited spatial resolution can be partially overcome by integrating SPECT with CT. Micro-CT by itself provides exquisite spatial resolution of anatomy, but recent developments in high-spatial-resolution photon counting and spectrally sensitive imaging arrays, combined with x-ray optical devices, hold promise for actual molecular identification by virtue of the chemical bond lengths of molecules, especially biopolymers. Given the increasing use of small animals for evaluating new clinical imaging techniques and providing more insight into pathophysiologic phenomena as well as the availability of improved detection systems, scanning protocols, and associated software, the sensitivity and specificity of molecular imaging are increasing.

Journal of Cellular Biochemistry, 2002

X-ray micro-CT is currently used primarily to generate 3D images of micro-architecture (and the function that can be deduced from it) and the regional distribution of administered radiopaque indicators, within intact rodent organs or biopsies from large animals and humans. Current use of X-ray micro-CT can be extended in three ways to increase the quantitative imaging of molecular transport and accumulation within such specimens. (1) By use of heavy elements, other than the usual iodine, attached to molecules of interest or to surrogates for those molecules. The accumulation of the indicator in the physiological compartments, and the transport to and from such compartments, can be quantitated from the imaged spatial distribution of these contrast agents. (2) The high spatial resolution of conventional X-ray attenuation-based CT images can be used to improve the quantitative nature of radionuclide-based tomographic images (SPECT & PET) by providing correction for attenuation of the emitted gamma rays and the accurate delineation of physiological spaces known to selectively accumulate those indicators. Similarly, other imaging modalities which also localize functions in 2D images (such as histological sections subsequently obtained from the same specimen), can provide a synergistic combination with CT-based 3D microstructure. (3) By increasing the sensitivity and specificity of X-ray CT image contrast by use of methods such as: K-edge subtraction imaging, X-ray fluorescence imaging, imaging of the various types of scattered X-ray and the consequences of the change in the speed of X-rays through different tissues, such as refraction and phase shift. These other methods of X-ray imaging can increase contrast by more than an order of magnitude over that due to conventionally-used attenuation of X-ray. To fully exploit their potentials, much development of radiopaque indicators, scanner hardware and image reconstruction and analysis software will be needed.

Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 1999

A technique for preserving fluorescence in retrogradely labelled neurons embedded in resin was developed. Four retrograde tracers were tested, Fast Blue (FB); Diamidino Yellow (DY); tetramethylrhodamine dextran (fluoro-ruby) (TMRD) and fluorescein dextran (fluoro-emerald) (FD). These tracers were applied to the cut end of the sciatic nerves in rats either by: (a) direct application of tracer crystals, or (b) dipping the nerve into an aqueous solution containing the tracer. Each lumbar spinal cord was removed and dehydrated by one of two methods: (a) conventional alcohol dehydration, or (b) dehydration through a graded series of aqueous methacrylate infiltration solutions (inert dehydration). Specimens were embedded in methacrylate and horizontal sections cut. The location of labelled motoneurons was mapped using a fluorescence microscope. Direct application of tracer crystals labelled more motoneurons than dipping. Fast Blue labelled considerably more motoneurons than tetramethylrhodamine. Labelling by all tracers was retained following methacrylate embedding. Fast Blue and Diamidino Yellow required inert dehydration, while tetramethylrhodamine dextran and fluorescein dextran were preserved using conventional dehydration. These results indicate that tissue labelled with commonly used fluorescent tracers can be processed and embedded in methacrylate, thereby permitting quantitative analysis by modern stereological methods.