Terrorism from Above and Below in the Age of Globalization

2010

Violence is terror and terror is violence. Liberators, freedom fighters, revolutionaries and terrorists have all become labels of convenience. Terrorism, historically, has been institutionalized by some governments to their advantage. Academicians and politicians fail to agree on the issues surrounding terrorism hence defining terrorism has become an academic puzzle. The ambiguity in its definition has also contributed to lack of any universal comprehensive acceptable theory. The literature on terrorism by and large accused weaker nations of supporting terrorism. This paper argues otherwise by using the African experience, slavery and colonization, to question the literature on terrorism. Nations throughout history have used terrorism as a pretext to expand their military atrocities when they cannot achieve their political goals diplomatically. This article concludes that the developed countries use terrorism as a tool for economic development as they occupy and control the resources of the less developed countries. In short, when it comes to terrorism all nations are guilty and the need for global solution must be paramount. 1 Introduction When we talk about terrorism, what exactly are we talking about? Is politically motivated violence terrorism? Can governments also be terrorists? 2 Many define terrorism in ways suggesting that "state terrorism" is something that needs to be distinguished from terrorism proper 3. Others disagree as to whether terrorism necessarily produces extreme fear or anxiety among some audience 4. So, under what conditions, if any, may we ascribe legitimacy to terrorist acts?

Terrorism studies is a fascinating look at a term without a universal definition. Terrorism is a societal construction often base on an ideology, whether it be: political, social, economic, oppression and religious. It is an old phenomenon but its contemporary appearance was first noted in the 19th century in France's " Reign of Terror. " In recent decades, terrorism and state sponsored terrorism have become progressively more glaring and lethal. All terrorism has political, social, economic and religious implications. The intent is to attract a wider audience and provoke a response through violence to support and proliferate their views. This 'new' terrorism has more sources, motivations and tactics and a network of affiliates for globalization. Now, in the 21 st. century, it has taken over and dominated the global political scene. There are numerous reasons for this upsurge such as: violations of international law, neo-liberalism, religious ideology and/or denied basic human rights. Given the increasing global threat of terrorism, it is critical that we understand its history, nature and premises under which it functions. This is important as it will shape the nation-states' policy when redressing the issues at stake. These issues, as well as others, I hope to explore and address these questions in this series of articles entitled: 'The Legacy and Plague of Terrorism.'

Introduction The topic of terrorism is both complex and emotive. It is complex because it combines so many different aspects of human experience, including subjects such as politics, psychology, philosophy, military strategy, and history, to name a few. Terrorism is also emotive both because experiences of terrorist acts arouse tremendous feelings, and because those who see terrorists as justified often have strong feelings concerning the rightness of the use of violence. Without a doubt, terrorism evokes strong feelings whenever it is discussed. A key challenge of understanding terrorism is both acknowledging the moral outrage at terrorist acts, while at the same time trying to understand the rationale behind terrorism. Terrorism is not a new phenomenon in human experience. Violence has been used throughout human history by those who chose to oppose states, kings, and princes. This sort of violence can be differentiated from what is termed as terrorism. Violence in opposition to a government is often targeted against soldiers and those who govern. Terrorism, however, is characterized by the use of violence against civilians, with the expressed desire of causing terror or panic in the population. Terrorism is not unique to the 20th and 21st centuries. Terrorism existed in 18th century revolutionary France during the reign of terror, as well as among the Zealots of Palestine in opposition to Roman rule some 2000 years ago. Arriving at a consensual definition of the phenomenon of terrorism has been a particularly difficult undertaking. Some definitions are either too specific or too vague, concentrating on some essential “terrorist” aspect of the actions, strategies, or types of non-state organizations that engage in terrorism. In this paper we draw on global approaches from international relations and world systems theories to propose a definition of terrorism that skirts these issues by concentrating on terrorist actors rather than terrorist behavior. Arguing that this approach has several advantages, including the dissolution of several empirical and analytical problems produced by more essentialist definitions, and the location of terrorism within a two dimensional continuum of collective-violence phenomena in the international system which discloses important theoretical insights. We proceed to examine the characteristics of terrorism by comparing it with other forms of violence in the international system. I propose that terrorism may be defined as being part of the cycles and trends of unrest in the world system, responding to the same broad families of global dynamics as other forms of system-level conflict. It is no secret that arriving at a consensual definition of terrorism is a difficult task. Some might say that constructing a characterization of terrorism that would be satisfactory for everyone is a downright impossible undertaking. It is much easier to point out the flaws in extant conceptions and usages of the term than to come up with a definition that would be free of those same faults, while being comprehensive enough to be both acceptable to most lay observers and useful for the conduct of academic research on the subject. Taking a birds-eye view of the field, it is clear what is wrong with current characterizations of terrorism: they are either too specific or too vague, they concentrate on particular (and theoretically arbitrary) aspects of the phenomenon while de-emphasizing others, or are too normatively oriented, mixing up descriptive and prescriptive terminology.

2011

"In the years since 9/11, terrorism has been transformed into an issue of global significance. Terrorism and the war on terror has affected virtually every aspect of modern life, and a precise understanding of terrorism is now more important – and contentious – than ever. This innovative text provides a much-needed critical introduction to terrorism. Cutting-edge research on contemporary issues is combined with new insights into long-debated issues such as the definition of terrorism, the nature of the terrorist threat and counter-terrorism strategies. Showing that the methods we adopt as well as the material we study are vital for a clear understanding of the subject, this text goes beyond traditional IR approaches to rethink popular beliefs and assumptions about terrorism. Taking a genuinely global and integrated approach, this book is an ideal entry into the study of terrorism. The text is supported by: • International case studies from around the world • A detailed glossary introducing key actors, events and concepts relating to terrorism • Learning aids to stimulate critical thinking, including discussion questions, further readings and selected web resources."

Since September the 11 th , 2001, terrorism has received renewed attention and study from the media, publics and scholars alike. While voluminous journalistic writings and some empirical research exists on the causes and structures of terrorism, comparatively little research has thoroughly explored the political and social impacts of terrorism and the responses societies and states have to terrorism. Conventional wisdom suggests that terrorism is born of political and economic grievance in poor, quasiauthoritarian states. Indeed, a large number of terrorist attacks are within developing nations. However, the relationship between structural conditions and terror may be more complicated. What if terrorism contributes to political and social disruption, which in turn leads to even more grievances that inspire further campaigns of political violence? In other words, does terrorism breed the very conditions that encourage insurgency in the first place, leading to a downward spiral of conflict and grievance thereby worsening the plight developing nations find themselves in?

International jorunal of research in social science, 2021

Globalization and Terrorism are two prominent terminology of modern world. In general globalization are considered as an economic phenomenon but it has political dimensions too. The relationship between globalization and terrorism are very complex. The concept of terrorism are undergoing with drastic changes under the influence of globalization. Globalization on the one hand works as the facilitator for terrorism while on the other hand it equips our security agencies with such technologies which are very helpful in checking the threat of terrorism. This paper is an attempt to understand the concept of globalisation with respect to terrorism. For example due to globalisation people are more free to move and settle from one country to another country. While shifting in new environment sometimes they feel difficulty in assimilating to new culture because these peoples have distinct set of ideas towards this new culture. Which becomes the cause of conflict between the new arrivals and the locals? In the same way globalization has amplified the effect of technology manifold which in turn helps security agencies in predicting and countering the terror act.

Open Political Science, 2018

The paper is an analysis of the different typology, forms and aspects of terrorism in its modern incarnation. It is a critical and thorough analysis of the varied manifestations of terrorism in the international political system. The paper shows that terrorism has evolved with modernity. Terrorism in its new variation is what this paper has called ‘Terrorism 4.0.’ Terrorism 4.0 (T4) has two basic and definable characteristics: it is fratricidal and genocidal in nature. The paper explores the different strategies and tactics employed by various and distinct terrorist groups to destabilize states in the international political system using T4 in combination with traditional terrorism practices. By drawing on the activities of non-state actors such as ISIS, Al-Qaeda, Tehrik-i-Taliban , Al-Shabaab, Boko Haram, Hamas and Hezbollah, the paper shows that terrorism has evolved beyond its traditional conceptions in the 20th century.

2014

Terrorism – conceptualization and development. The core of terrorism is systemic violence usage to terrify people and spread fear. Fear serves as a policy tool for terrorists. The definition of terrorism that would be widely acceptable is an issue for discussion. The existing definitions vary according following criteria: the amount of definition characters, the orientation of institutions backing those definitions and as well according individual scholars and their orientation. Development of terrorism from radicalism towards extremism is influenced by two accredited indicator groups: Terrorism as a state policy tool in the sense of defence against enemies was born during the Great French Revolution and as a tool of revolutionaries – intellectuals wanting to destroy the existing society. This was born in Russia during Tsarist regime. Anarchists – terrorists created first terrorist international. The point of view of the modern terrorism predecessors emphasizes the organizational st...

2010

In this article we intend to highlight some problems that must be considered within the framework of an approach aiming to comprehend the terrorist phenomenon, an investigation conducted both at a scholarly level, and a at general audience one. In the opening part we identify several difficulties that emerge from any attempt to specify the conceptual meaning of „international terrorism”. This is a concept that involves a great deal of subjectivity and is highly contested, and consequently it cannot grasp the corresponding phenomenon in a universal and objective manner, especially since a large number of actors in the international arena make use of violence in order to advance their political aims. This is why it is imperative to acknowledge the particular interests and the strategic objectives involved in any „construction” of the terrorist phenomenon. Thus we open the way for an analysis, conducted in a critical manner, of the theoretical and empirical issues raised by this approa...

2018

The Psychological-sociological field of inquiry stresses that the critical and main purpose of terrorism is to cultivate shock and horror whilst political goals come second to that. In opposition, political rational considers terrorist actions as cognitive methods of operation steered by the logic of acquiring various interests and attaining absolute political goals . In attempts at understanding how varied fields of knowledge define the phenomenon of terrorism, this paper begins with the customary definition as premeditated acts of violence largely aimed at civilians, organised by non-state actors in order to obtain socioeconomic, patriotic, political, ideological or religious objectives, through inculcating fear and threats (lbid). A universal comprehension and description of terrorism is arguably an impossible reality. To that effect and to avoid been accused of complacency, the United Nations (UN) commenced the effort by ratifying the 2004 Resolution 1566 stating,