Intelligence, inspection time, and cognitive strategies
Vincent Egan
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Abstract
The use of apparent motion cues to guide discriminations on the inspection time (IT) task has been taken to imply the vulnerability of IT to strategic processes by higher IQ subjects, and the questionable generality of the IT/IQ correlation. The current study examined verbal and non-verbal intelligence, personality and IT in 74 young adults, using light-emitting diodes to present IT, obtaining perceptual self-reports during IT itself. Forty-three (58 per cent) subjects in the sample reported using motion cues to guide IT discriminations; these subjects had faster ITs than individuals who did not use motion cues (t = 2.97, p < .005; effect size = .73). Cue users did not have higher verbal or non-verbal IQ than non-users. Although cue users were lower in neuroticism than non-cue users, this did not account for their faster ITs. Slower IT correlated with lower scores on a measure of non-verbal intelligence (r = -0.41, p < .001); the size of this correlation remained similar when the sample was divided into groups reporting the use of motion cues or not. Thus, despite motion cues enhancing performance on an IT task, the perception of these cues neither causes, nor reduces, the correlation between IT and IQ.
Related papers
Inspection time and intelligence: further attempts to eliminate the apparent movement strategy
Intelligence, 2001
While the inspection time (IT) paradigm has proved itself as one of our best candidates for a reductive measure of general ability, some unsolved problems impede interpretation of the correlation between IQ scores and IT. Foremost among these are concerns that stimulus artifacts may reduce the validity of IT as a measure of processing speed. Attempts to use meta-contrast masks to eliminate apparent movement strategy have proven unsuccessful [Am J Psychol 106 (1993) 191.]. This paper reports on the effectiveness of three backward masks to reduce apparent motion strategies in the IT paradigm as well as assessing putative personality effects on masking and IT. The ability of subjects to use apparent motion was investigated using the traditional IT mask, and two new masks: flash and lines. Apparent motion was most frequently reported by subjects under the traditional masking condition. IQ scores based on a test of figural manipulation (Alice Heim 5 figural) were significantly negatively correlated with reported perception and use of apparent motion cues in the standard IT mask condition, but not in the new mask conditions. Significant negative correlations between IT and IQ were obtained in all masking conditions, suggesting that the use of apparent motion cues does not determine the significant and negative correlation between IT and IQ. Results suggested that future research should employ masks of the type tested here.
Intelligence and inspection time: Do high-IQ subjects use cognitive strategies?
Personality and Individual Differences, 1986
Inspection Time and IQ: Fluid or Perceptual Aspects of Intelligence
PsycEXTRA Dataset, 1999
Past research has found an association between inspection time (IT) and fluid intelligence using measures confounded with visual processing (e.g., Wechsler PIQ or Ravens Progressive Matrices). The present study related IT to intelligence using a measure (Woodcock-Johnson-Revised, WJ-R) that has nonconfounded factors of mental ability in order to determine whether the association is based upon fluid IQ or perceptual processes. Thirty-seven undergraduate students were given fluid, crystallized, and visual processes subtests from the Woodcock-Johnson and a visual IT task. Stepwise multiple regression and partial correlations revealed that IT was related only to fluid intelligence (range corrected correlation of À .74), supporting the notion that IT reflects some fundamental underlying aspect of intelligence such as neural processing efficiency.
Inspection time and IQ: Evidence for a mental speed—ability association
Personality and Individual Differences, 1986
Two studies have tested a theory that individual differences in mental speed constitute an important component of differences in general intelligence by examining patterns of correlation between 'inspection time' (IT) and various ability measures assumed to reflect different kinds of speed. The first study was set within the framework of Cattell's theory about the structure of abilities. Results from 30 adult Ss whose IQs (Raven Advanced Progressive Matrices, P&PM) were in the average to above-average range suggested that IT is associated with a broad general ability variable and not with the primary abilities 'perceptual speed' or 'speed of closure'. However, IT was significantly correlated with only a subgroup of those primary abilities that were significantly intercorrelated. and the outcome did not further elucidate the nature of speed as discussed within Cattell's formulation. The second study tested a relationship between IT and a measure of general 'intellectual speed', previously described as the major determinant of intellectual differences in a situation where two other critical variables. 'accuracy' and 'continuance' can exert no influence. It was measured for more than 40 adult Ss. whose IQs (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised) ranged from 81 to 138, and compared with times to produce the correct solution to individual items from the RPM. IT, IQ and solution times were all significantly intercorrelated but, nonetheless, IT and solution times appeared to be substantially reflecting different processes. It is concluded that IT can account for more than the 10% of variance in IQ commonly found to be shared with simple information-processing tasks. The present result of approx. 17% shared variance is probably an underestimate, given the restricted IQ samples used and certain procedural shortcomings. The nature of speed reflected by IT has not been determined and current measurement procedures may be confounded by internal noise.
Correlation between inspection time and psychometric abilities
Intelligence, 2001
More than 25 years of research suggests that the measure inspection time (IT) does capture lowlevel aspects of cognitive functioning that contribute to human intelligence. However, recent evidence does not support earlier claims that IT estimates the speed of a single mechanism like ''sampling input'' or ''apprehension.'' Rather, together with other tasks that employ pattern backward masking to limit the duration for which information is available for processing, IT is probably sensitive both to focused attentional capacities to detect organization and change under severe time constraints and to decision processes, ongoing beyond mask onset, that monitor responding. Among normal young adults, IT is correlated with the broad psychometric factor Gs (''speediness''). This mediates correlation with general intelligence. In this group, IT is not correlated with Gf. However, whether this outcome generalizes to samples of persons with an intellectual disability, to young children, or to elderly persons is not yet known. Psychological processes underpinning IT are currently only speculatively defined, but it should prove possible to unravel these by experimentation. To this end, backward masking procedures are arguably more theoretically tractable than reaction time tasks because they reduce the impact of higher-level cognitive strategies on performance. On this basis, IT may hold promise as a means for developing partial explanations for intelligence in psychological terms. However, whether this is realized depends on identifying the psychological functions that support IT.
Visual and auditory inspection time: their interrelationship and correlations with IQ in high ability subjects
Personality and Individual …, 1989
The relationship between intelligence, personality and inspection time
British Journal of Psychology, 1996
This study investigates the relationship between intelligence test performance, a test of visual inspection time (IT) and personality and temperament dimensions. Howe's (1990) hypothesis that IT and IQ are empirically related because of personality or temperament variables is evaluated and rejected. IT and performance IQ (PIQ) were significantly related independent of personality or temperament variables. IT and verbal I Q (VIQ) were unrelated. Robinson's (1989) hypothesis that ambiverts (moderate extraversion) perform significantly better on I Q tests was examined and supported. Ambiverts performed significantly better on verbal and performance measures of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence ScaleRevised (WAIS-R) and on the Raven's Advance Progressive Matrices (APM). Mobility from the Strelau Temperament Inventory (STI) was also related to performance I Q (PIQ) and Raven's test scores. These results suggest an important role for the concepts of arousal and/or arousability in a biological model of intelligence. Implications for intelligence assessment are discussed.
Reaction time and inspection time as measures of intellectual ability
Personality and Individual Differences, 1989
Measures of IQ. inspection time and reaction time (means. variances and errors) were obtained from each of a number of university undergraduates, trade apprentices and intellectually disabled workers. The reliability with which these measures, both individually and in various combinations, assigned Ss correctly to university, trade college and work training centre, respectively was tested by allocating Ss to those locations on the basis of these measures according to the actual proportions of these groups in the overall sample. Thus, those Ss with the highest IQs were assigned to the 'university' location up to the proportion represented by that group in the total sample. Similarly, those Ss with the lowest IQs were assigned to the intellectually disabled workers group up to the proportion represented by that group in the total sample, and the remaining Ss were assigned to the trade apprentices group. This procedure was repeated for the inspection time and reaction time measures. Results showed that while IQ was the most reliable single measure in assigning people to the actual groups from which they were drawn, it was less accurate than a combination of reaction time measures.
Juhel, J. (1991). Psychometric intelligence and inspection time: A well established but under debated relationship. Paper presented at the 1rst European Conference on Psychological Assessment, Barcelona (Spain), September 23-24.
Two experiments are reported which attempt to study the relationship between Inspection Time (IT), broadly interpreted as an estimate of the speed of perceptual encoding, and general intelligence, as measured by Raven's test (RAPM). In the rst study with 59 subjects, ITs, Raven scores, mean latencies and trial-to-trial intra-individual variability indicators on two computerized elementary cognitive tasks (a visual search task and a perceptual discrimination task) were collected. In the second one, ITs, Raven scores, and performances on a computerized analogical reasoning task were measured from a group of 36 subjects. Referring to Sternberg's componential model (Sternberg, 1977), this last task was designed to allow the measuring of inferred latencies corresponding to dierent information processing sequences. The correlation between IT and psychometric intelligence, computed for the 95 subjects , was about the same as those reported in studies using similar samples (r=-0.338, p<.001). Yet, a structural analysis of the relationships between IT and some elementary information processing parameters, with respect to their prospective inuence on psycho-metric intelligence, showed the weakness of common variance percentage. In addition, the second study's results showed the independence of IT with latencies and accuracy on the computerized analogical reasoning task. Our conclusion is that IT's relationship pattern with intelligence seems dierent from that shown by these various information processing parameters. Whether IT would be understood in terms of speed and accuracy of some perceptual bottom-up processing or in terms of eciency of some metacomponential top-down processing, we feel that IT is not very relevant to the study of cognitive abilities and, consequently, is not a "new" (as opposed to Binet-type tests) and "economical" measure of intelligence.
Intelligence, inspection time, and decision time* 1
Intelligence, 1993
Inspection time and IQ
Intelligence, 2002
Past research has found an association between inspection time (IT) and fluid intelligence using measures confounded with visual processing (e.g., Wechsler PIQ or Ravens Progressive Matrices). The present study related IT to intelligence using a measure (Woodcock-Johnson-Revised, WJ-R) that has nonconfounded factors of mental ability in order to determine whether the association is based upon fluid IQ or perceptual processes. Thirty-seven undergraduate students were given fluid, crystallized, and visual processes subtests from the Woodcock-Johnson and a visual IT task. Stepwise multiple regression and partial correlations revealed that IT was related only to fluid intelligence (range corrected correlation of À .74), supporting the notion that IT reflects some fundamental underlying aspect of intelligence such as neural processing efficiency.
Inspection time and the relationship among elementary cognitive tasks, general intelligence, and specific cognitive abilities
Intelligence, 2001
The relationship between inspection time (IT) and paper-and-pencil tests of cognitive ability is well documented. However, the extent to which IT relates to cognitive ability through general intelligence or through group factors such as performance has not been fully addressed. Another unresolved issue is whether IT relates to psychometric intelligence independent from other elementary cognitive tasks. The current study examined
The relationship between speed of information processing as measured by timed paper-and-pencil tests and psychometric intelligence
Intelligence, 1988
Intelligence, inspection time, and decision time
Intelligence, 1993
Relationships between Multidimensional Aptitude Battery (MAB) scores, inspection time (IT), choice reaction time (CRT), and the odd-man procedure (OMO) were investigated. IT was measured using a curve-fitting procedure that was less susceptible to variable task performance. IQ correlated significantly with IT (r =-.624) and OMO decision time (DT; r = .365) as well as with CRT DT (r =-.28). IT and OMO DT correlated .364. No significant relationships were found between these mental speed measures and Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised (EPQ-R) dimensions of extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism, suggesting that motivational factors and strategies were minimized in this experiment.
Personality and information processing speed: Independent influences on intelligent performance
2004
Raven's matrices and inspection time (IT) were recorded from 56 subjects under five arousal levels. Raven's and IT correlated strongly (r = À .7) as predicted by processing-speed theories of g. In line with Eysenck's [Eysenck, H. J. (1967). The biological basis of personality. Springfield, IL: Thomas] arousal theory of extraversion, there was a significant inverted U relationship between Raven's scores and arousal. No support was found for predictions that the IT-Raven's correlation was affected by personality. Likewise, the prediction of Gardner [Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books] that ability measures correlate only because they share linguistic mediation was not supported. Instead, the data are compatible with a model in which processing speed and personality jointly influence performance on intelligence tests via predictable additive effects of processing speed and quadratic interaction effects of arousal and personality.
Mental speed is not the ‘basic’ process of intelligence
Personality and Individual Differences, 1997
It is argued that a great deal of human intelligence research has unjustly overemphasised the role played by mental speed. While it is accepted that mental speed is an important aspect of intelligence, determination of this as the basic process underlying individual differences is a consequence of flawed logic. This may be attributed to several questionable research practices and/or theoretical shortcomings. These include: (a) The adoption of a narrow neo-Spearmanian model of intelligence; (b) Selective interpretation of the available empirical evidence wherein correlations between mental speed and intelligence measures are actually mediocre and certainly of no greater order of magnitude than many other elementary cognitive processes; (c) A failure to realise that the factorial composition of mental speed may be as complex as that for number correct (i.e. level) measures; (d) The acceptance of two main paradigms in the literature-Choice Reaction Time (CRT) and Inspection Time (IT)-both of which contain a number of unresolved controversies;
Inspection time in the structure of cognitive abilities
Intelligence, 2003
Inspection time (IT) correlates with IQ. This study had four aims: to locate IT within a hierarchical model of cognitive abilities; to test if IT has properties not tapped by other backward masking tasks; to test whether decision time (DT) from 'odd-man-out' (OMO) reaction time (RT) measures the same basic process as IT; and to test whether Wechsler performance IQ (PIQ) measures fluid ability (Gf). A battery of psychometric and chronometric tests was administered to 90 adults. Exploratory factor analysis showed that IT loaded on a general speediness factor and a higher-order general ability factor (G) but not on Gf. The results were similar for an alphanumeric pattern backward masking task suggesting that IT does not have special status as a backward masking task. DT and IT measured different processes and PIQ did not measure Gf. Confirmatory factor analyses compared results across alternative models of cognitive abilities but without differentiating one above the others. We conclude that IT does not measure fluid ability, but the question of whether information-processing speed is common to all cognitive abilities is still open. D
Selective reaction times and intelligence
Intelligence, 1990
The relationship between psychometric intelligence (measured by Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices) and two selective reaction time tasks was determined for 81 university students. These RT tasks allow the investigation of the process of stimulus discrimination and its correlation with intelligence, thus excluding response choice, which is sensitive to practice effects. In addition, shortcomings of previous studies using the Hick task (visual attention effects, response bias effects) can be avoided. Results for the RT-IQ relationship are generally in line with those for the Hick paradigm, but some surprising findings emerged: Movement times showed higher correlations with intelligence than RTs. An explanation for this result on the basis of a correlation between RT/MT strategies and IQ was tested and found to be adequate. The size of slope-IQ correlations was found to be dependent on the fit of the slope to Hick's law. The results are discussed with respect to the specific demands of selective RT tasks.
Reaction time and movement time relationships with intelligence in three different simple tasks
Personality and Individual Differences, 1998
The purposes of the present study were (a) to investigate the MT/IQ relationship in a task involving a more complex movement than is typically required and (b) to compare RT/IQ and MT/IQ relationships across three different types of tasks. Forty-one adult subjects were administered the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test and three tasks at different speeds: (1) a computer-administered Hick paradigm task at five levels of task complexity, (2) a simple target-striking task that allows for a complex movement, and (3) a paper-and-pencil copying task. Results were: (a) the direction of RT/IQ and MT/IQ correlations were as expected for the Hick paradigm task, but the sizes of correlations were low; (b) no significant relationships with IQ were found for the RT or MT components of the target-striking task: (c) significant correlations with RT but not MT were found for the copying task: (d) little evidence for inter-task similarity was found; and (e) relationships were stronger for the non-verbal than the verbal part of the intelligence test. Q
On the heritability of inspection time and its covariance with IQ: a twin study
Intelligence, 2001
Using the classical twin design, this study investigates the influence of genetic factors on the large phenotypic variance in inspection time (IT), and whether the well established IT -IQ association can be explained by a common genetic factor. Three hundred ninety pairs of twins (184 monozygotic, MZ; 206 dizygotic, DZ) with a mean age of 16 years participated, and 49 pairs returned approximately 3 months later for retesting. As in many IT studies, the pi figure stimulus was used and IT was estimated from the cumulative normal ogive. IT ranged from 39.4 to 774.1 ms (159 ± 110.1 ms) with faster ITs (by an average of 26.9 ms) found in the retest session from which a reliability of .69 was estimated. Full-scale IQ (FIQ) was assessed by the Multidimensional Aptitude Battery (MAB) and ranged from 79 to 145 (111 ± 13). The phenotypic association between IT and FIQ was confirmed ( À .35) and bivariate results showed that a common genetic factor accounted for 36% of the variance in IT and 32% of the variance in FIQ. The maximum likelihood estimate of the genetic correlation was À .63. When performance and verbal IQ (PIQ & VIQ) were analysed with IT, a stronger phenotypic and genetic relationship was found between PIQ and IT than with VIQ. A large part of the IT variance (64%) was accounted for by a unique environmental factor. Further genetic factors were needed to explain the remaining variance in IQ with a small component of unique environmental variance present. The separability of a shared genetic factor influencing IT and IQ from the total genetic variance in IQ suggests that IT affects a specific 0160-2896/01/$ -see front matter D 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 1 6 0 -2 8 9 6 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 7 1 -X Intelligence 29 (2001) 443 -457 subcomponent of intelligence rather than a generalised efficiency. D
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