Clearing the Heart: Rāzī & Reasoning

AJAMES (Annals of Japan Association for Middle East Studies), 2018

Modern scholars emphasize the influence of Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna, d. 1037) on Islamic philosophical theology, but Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (d. 1210), one of its contributors, acquainted himself not only with the philosophies of Ibn Sīnā and Abū al-Barakāt al-Baghdādī (d. 1152) but also with so-called occult sciences such as astrology, magic, and theurgy. The previous studies of his theology paid little attention to those esoteric sciences even though they had been regarded as natural scientific philosophy. As a part of the study of Islamic philosophical theology at the beginning of the thirteenth century, this paper examines the extent that this philosophy including occult sciences was absorbed into al-Rāzī’s theology. Following the introduction (I), section II analyzes the “philosophy” insofar as he perceives it, by reading his theological treatises in chronological order. As is well-known, al-Rāzī criticizes the “philosophers,” whom al-Shahrastānī (d. 1153) actually described in al-Milal wa-l-niḥal as the Sabian “adherents of spiritual beings.” I point out that, in his latest theological work al-Maṭālib al-ʿāliya min ʿilm al-ilāhī, al-Rāzī adopts the cosmlogy of those “adherents of spiritual beings,” who reportedly believed the authority of the mythical figure Hermes and practiced what we call occult sciences like celestial magic. Section III, then, questions the origin of the adherents of spiritual beings. Recent studies have revealed that Hermes, who has been associated with the Sabians, began to be integrated into the Islamic context from the twelfth century onward as al-Shahrastānī did. Al-Rāzī also lived in the era of the synthesis of Arabic Hermeticism and Islamic thoughts, and I point out that he admits that the “philosophers” have an esoteric and mythical origin. In the final section (IV), I will show that al-Rāzī did accept not only the “philosophers” but also the occult sciences into his theology in al-Maṭālib. As a result, he adopts the cosmology of the Universal Soul, which utilizes the concept of “trace” (athar) instead of “emanation” (fayḍ), and he uses “species” (nawʿ) to distinguish between human beings. He differs from Ibn Sīnā in these points, yet he keeps the structure and concepts of Ibn Sīnā to some extent. We can say that he imports occult science into his theology as an alternative to Avicennan philosophy, regarding it as “philosophy.”

Comparative Philosophy: An International Journal of Constructive Engagement of Distinct Approaches toward World Philosophy

In his seminal Orientalism and Religion (1999), Richard King argues that Western scholars of religion have constructed a conceptual dichotomy between "mysticism" and "rationality" that has caused them to systematically distort the claims and arguments of Eastern thinkers. While King focuses primarily on Western scholarship on the Buddhist and Hindu traditions, this essay shows that his argument can also be extended to apply to Western scholarship on al-Ghazālī, whose sympathy for Sufism and apparent rejection of Greek philosophy has often earned him the reputation of being a champion of Islamic mysticism. I argue that al-Ghazālī transcends the dueling categories of 'rationality' and 'mysticism' that have been imposed on him by offering a conception of experiential knowledge that retains its roots in the 'mystical' Sufi tradition, even while also highlighting the rational merits of experientially-grounded modes of knowing. In particular, I argue that al-Ghazālī shows us how experiential knowledge is both important to providing motivation for rational action and also critical to underwriting persons' genuine understanding of the evaluative properties of that which is known.

Nazariyat İslam Felsefe ve Bilim Tarihi Araştırmaları Dergisi (Journal for the History of Islamic Philosophy and Sciences), 2021

This article examines al-Rāzī’s views on the possibility of metaphysical knowledge. Firstly, after outlining his classification of the metaphysical knowable into essence and existence as well as undetailed (ijmālī) and detailed (tafṣīlī), the article analyzes al-Rāzī’s acceptance of the possibility of general knowledge of metaphysics under a few headings by delving into some major themes. These include the claims that the category of existence is broader than the world of the sensible, that theoretical reasoning leads to metaphysical knowledge, and lastly that the theoretical evidence provides necessary knowledge about the existence of a creator. Al-Rāzī has also been demonstrated in al-Matālib to have inherited the arguments rejecting metaphysical knowledge, which he had attributed in his earlier works to a group with the name muhandisiyyūn, by restricting them to the issue of God’s essence being knowable. For al-Rāzī, theoretical reasoning could provide knowledge about the existen...

The Attributes of God in Islamic Thought, 2024

This study examines al-Rāzī’s (606/1210) discussion of the ontological status of divine attributes and aims to demonstrate to what extend he was influenced by philosophical theories and discussions. One of al-Rāzī’s harshest critics, Ibn Taymiyya (728/1328) claimed that al-Rāzī applied the rational proofs so excessively that he ultimately developed a philosophized understanding of divine attributes which deviates from the path of Ahl al-Sunna. This study argues that Ibn Taymiyya’s accusations about al-Rāzī’s abandonment of Sunnī path are overstated. On the contrary, the findings of this study attest that al-Rāzī constantly struggled to defend Sunnī theory of divine attributes against philosophers and the Muʿtazila. Nevertheless, al-Rāzī did employ many distinctive and novel philosophical concepts and ideas. Among the multiple changes he proposed, his key contribution was to describe the attributes as relations (al-nisab) which is a modification of the Avicennian principle about the emanation theory and God’s munificence. This principle was associated with a formula whereby the attributes can be regarded as possible in themselves and necessary by the essence of God which is also an adaptation of the Avicennian formula. Furthermore, al-Rāzī also abandoned certain Sunnī principles such as the idea that eternality should be considered God’s most exclusive attribute.

In recent years, we have witnessed an efflorescence of research on Islamic esoteric traditions and occult thought. Such scholarly activity established that occultism is a part of Islamic intellectual history that cannot be overlooked; rather it illuminates an essential aspect of the way people thought about the hidden, the extraordinary, and their potential for partaking in the divine and wondrous. Occult beliefs are embedded in philosophical, scientific, and religious discourses and in this chapter I consider the adaptations and modifications of the metaphysical elements that underpinned occult practices in medieval Islam (eighth to thirteenth centuries), particularly in their relation to the ways whereby nature and the divine were perceived and experienced. I argue that medieval Islamic occult philosophy distinguished the practices it supported from forbidden siḥr or sorcery by identifying legitimate conditions of acquiring power based on two paradigms: association with natural philosophy, and/or an affiliation with mysticism. A shift of emphasis occurred in the medieval period: from the eighth to the eleventh centuries, legitimisation of occult practices derived mainly from natural philosophy, stressing causation and knowledge of signs as the core principles of magical efficacy. Towards the thirteenth century occult practices began to derive their justifications from Sufi doctrines. In the first case, by and large, magic was deemed natural as it functioned according to a causality proven empirically and understood rationally; however, later, the power of extraordinary acts, including magic, became the prerogative of mystics achieved through non-rationalised revelation and contact with the divine, all of which undermined natural causality and transformed the signs from indicators of natural links to tokens of God and supernatural agents that mediate between Him and the mystic.

Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, 2011

Muslim commentary on the Quran can be tremendously interesting, and none more so than the amazing commentary of Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (d. 1209), Mafātīḥ al-ghayb. This article explores and explains what al-Rāzī wrote on verses that touch on four lively topics in interfaith conversation: violence in matters of faith, the authenticity of the Torah, and the death and deity of Jesus.

Philosophising the Occult: Avicennan Psychology and ‘The Hidden Secret’ of Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī, 2021

In the twelfth century, Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (d. 1210) was the pre-eminent theologian of the Islamic east. His magisterial work ‘the Hidden Secret’ adapted Avicenna’s psychology and celestial kinematics to explain the “talismanic” occult craft: how the human soul could establish a noetic connection with the planetary spheres to draw down their powers into a talisman. Thus empowered, it could affect terrestrial change that contravened the empirical norm. For Rāzī, this was a genuine science, its epistemology rooted in empirical observation, analogical reasoning, inspiration, and the transmission of data accumulated since time immemorial. Results in the real world confirmed the truth of its claims. Examining Rāzī’s philosophical theory of the science and its influence on the counter-Avicennan prophetology of his late career, the present study will demonstrate that occult science was indeed an important aspect of Islamic intellectual history, the object of profound rational engagement.

Whether a human being can know God, and, if they can, by which way, is a matter of discussion within the Islamic tradition. Muslim philosophers, theologians and sufis have had heated discussions on this issue, and crucially different views have been put forth. As a result of these debates, the existence of more than one way to such knowledge became apparent, and it proved difficult to rule out completely the validity of any of these alternatives. That is why we see in the writings of the great figures from the later generations of Islamic tradition an attempt to somehow include these different ways into their respective theories. In this article, I will discuss the approaches of two leading figures of the Islamic tradition to the nature, sources and limits of metaphysical knowledge, in particular to knowledge of God. The first figure I wish to consider is Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (d. 1210), one of the leading thinkers not only within the Ash‘arite school, but also within Muslim theology in general. His main achievement was to harmonise philosophy, particularly the philosophy of Ibn Sīnā, with Muslim theology, and produce a kind of philosophical theology that exerted significant influence upon later theologians. The second figure is Muḥyī al-Dīn Ibn ‘Arabī (d. 1240), hailed as the ‘Greatest Master’ in Sufi tradition and responsible for a deep and pervasive influence over the intellectual life of later generations. For the purpose of this article, I will compare their approaches with the three following main questions: First, whether it is possible for human beings to have knowledge of God and whether this knowledge includes God’s existence, essence and attributes. Second, whether human beings can reach certainty in this area or have to be satisfied with the most appropriate opinion among the alternatives. Finally, what is the way that leads human beings to knowledge of God? Both Rāzī and Ibn ‘Arabī state that there are two ways for human beings to have the knowledge of God, namely, unveiling and reasoning. I will discuss how they evaluate these two ways; whether they consider them as alternatives or complementary.

CAUSALITY, RATIONALITY, AND MYSTICISM: AN INQUIRY INTO GHAZALI'S THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE, 2020

ABSTRACT Philosophers have largely and unceasingly disputed the epistemological place of rationality and the relationship between observational causes and effects. The purpose of this study is to examine the epistemological relationality between Ghazali’s critique of the necessitarian notion of causality as well as pure rationality. Building upon, his emphasis in underlining the compatibility of the rational knowledge with the religious one, along with his introducement of secondary theory of causality, this study argues that, Ghazali never nullified observable causal relations and the role of reason in one’s epistemological search. Nevertheless, his critique of necessitarian causal nexuses resulted from his belief of creating an epistemic space for miracles on the one hand, and he also challenged the totalitarian place of rationality to create an epistemic space for the Sufi’s mystical experiences, on the other. This thesis will provide that, following his/her achievement of the hard task of polishing the heart, the Sufi saint could possibly acquire an epistemic state that transcends rationality and became able to perform some miracles that trespass the observable causal connections. Therefore, I situated the Sufi saints as a pivotal point within which the epistemological relationality takes place. Keywords: Causality, Miracles, Rationality, Sufi-experiences, Epistemic-relationality