Determinants of Female Employment

2014

In this paper, all 93 NSW Electorates, for both the 2013 and 2004 Redistributions, are matched to their corresponding SA4s. On pages 11 to 15, the electorates are matched to three SA4s at most (note that several electorates lie across more than three SA4s). Tables list the percentage of each electorate's population located in an SA4, as calculated using the 2011 Census. 31 labour force indicators feature in this publication. The first 12 include key labour force indicators such as employment, the unemployment rate, the youth unemployment rate and the participation rate. Except in the case of long-term unemployment, these indicators are broken down by gender and by agetotal, persons aged 15 years and over, and youth, persons aged 15 to 24. The last 19 indicators concern employment by industry. Two tables are provided for each industry: a count of persons employed in the industry; and the percentage of total employed persons employed in the industry. Each regional profile contains the data on all 31 labour force indicators, together with graphs of key indicators. The NSW electorates (2013 Redistribution) located in each region are listed in the profile, together with the percentage of their population located in the region. Every region is ranked from highest (1 st) to lowest (28 th) for those indicators which are percentages or ratios. Greater Sydney figures are also included in each profile for ease of comparison. A section at the end of the paper contains all the NSW, Greater Sydney and Regional NSW figures. This publication starts with a section on key labour force concepts and youth unemployment. Reading this chapter prior to the rest of the paper is recommended in order to best understand the figures presented, especially with regards to youth unemployment. Several less well-known labour force indicators aid interpretation of such key indicators as the youth unemployment rate. These include, for example, the youth unemployment ratio and the ratio of youth-to-adult unemployment rates. The following tables summarise the key figures for all 28 regions. The commentary draws attention to interesting labour force trends at the NSW level, providing a context for the regional labour force trends. May 2014: Employment, part-time employment and youth full-time employment Region Employment Part-time employment Youth full-time employment No. ('000) May 14 Av. ann. growth (%) 2000-14 No. ('000) May 14 Av. ann. growth (%) 2000-14 No. ('000) May 14 Av. ann. growth (%) 2000-14 iii May 2014: Unemployment rate, youth unemployment rate and participation rate Region Unemployment rate Youth unemployment rate Participation rate % May Change 2000-14 % May 14 Change 2000-14 % May Change 2000-14 Greater Sydney 5.4% 0.8% 11.8% 2.6% 65.7% 2.2% May 2014: top six industries in NSW Region Health care & social assistance Retail trade Professional, scientific & technical services No. ('000) May 14 Av. ann. growth (%) 2001-14 No. ('000) May 14 Av. ann. growth (%) 2001-14 No. ('000) May 14 Av. ann. growth (%)

2010

This report sets out to identify factors associated with persistently low rates of female labour market participation and employment in Leicester City. Female economic activity rates in Leicester barely shifted from 65.2 per cent in 1999 to 65.9 per cent in 2009. This minimal growth occurred within a period, which until the recession of 2008, was characterised by sustained national economic growth. For example, in Great Britain, over the same time period, female economic activity rates rose from 72.5 per cent to 74.2 per cent. The gap between Leicester and the national average has therefore widened over time. The female employment rate in Leicester is also very low compared with the national average and has fallen from 59.5 per cent in 1999 to 58.2 per cent in 2009. Leicester is likely to improve their ability to compete in the workforce for jobs in the area. On a more positive note, just over 1,000 female graduates from the three universities in the sub-region obtained employment in Leicester city. Low pay Levels of pay available in Leicester emerged as a factor related to entry to the workforce in both the quantitative and qualitative evidence especially in relation to the replacement costs of childcare. Rates of pay in Leicester are relatively low for both men and women. The median gross hourly pay for women who work part-time is £7.11 an hour compared to £7.49 per hour in the East Midlands. For full-time work the differential is even larger at £9.79 per hour in Leicester compared to £10.51 per hour for the East Midlands region. For some women the alternative of looking after a home and family may be a preferable alternative.

2019

This chapter reviews the life cycle of women's employment in Australia, arguing that while women's labour force attachment has shifted and increased significantly in the last forty years, it still does not match male employment patterns over the life cycle and around which our policy framework was constructed. The result of this is a number of inequality markers between genders. Three of these inequality markers are examined: working hours, pay and superannuation. The causes and interconnections between them are discussed as they relate to the four life phases we identify.

Social Science & Medicine, 1987

Previous research indicates that working women are healthier than housewives, that the unemployed are less healthy than those currently employed, and that transitions into and out of paid work may be particularly associated with poor health. Women respondents in the 1979 U.S. National Health Interview Survey were divided into five categories: the long term employee, the newly employed. the unemployed, the recently non-employed and the housewife. The categories were compared on six measures of self-reported health and illness behaviour, controlling for age, SES, marital status. and age of youngest child. As expected the long term employees were the healthiest, followed by the recently employed; the unemployed and the housewives were not distinguishable in terms of their health; and the recently non-employed were the least healthy. This pattern was found for both the total sample, and for the sub sample of married mothers. The dynamic relationship between employment status and health. is discussed.

Using household survey data and logistic regression modelling for Mauritius from 2006 to 2008, we investigate the factors that encourage and also deter women from entering the labour market. Our findings corroborate with previous evidence for developing countries and indicate that the greater a woman's educational level, the greater her participation; and that older woman participates more, though the rate of growth of this effect decreases. In addition, secondary education proves to be a significant determinant of female labour participation rate in Mauritius. Our results also reveal that married women are less likely to enter the labour force. In fact marital status is one of the most important factors averting them from work.

Women can be financially empowered and this can only be possible if they have equal opportunities to work so as to receive wages. This has almost become a mirage, as many factors seem to hinder women from engaging in the Nigerian labour force. This study therefore is an Analysis of the Major Determinants of Female Labour Force Participation Rate in Awka South Local Government Area of Anambra State. These factors were examined using the Neoclassical work/leisure tradeoff model and the Becker's Human Capital Theory. It is survey research conducted using a well-structured questionnaire divided into four sections. Out of 500 copies of questionnaire distributed, 496 representing 99.2% were returned. The model was estimated using the method of Maximum Likelihood-Binary Logit. Results showed that age, family income and marital status exert negative effects while household size and education exert positive effects on female labour force participation. It is recommended that government should change policies that are gender biased against women which restrict them from participating freely in the labour force. Girl-child education should also be encouraged through government scholarships. Policies that support married women especially nursing mothers should be made to encourage married women and mothers to actively engage in labour.

2012

The analysis of regional markets has surfaced as an important emerging area of economic research in recent years. In particular, economists have attempted to explain the factors behind divergent trends in different regions' growth, migration, structural change and employment. With this in mind, the focus of this paper is to explore the trends in regional labour force participation for mature females over the period 1992 to present. The labour force participation of this group is particularly relevant in the context of Australia's ageing population. To analyse mature age participation we utilise ANOVA to determine the differences between various Australian regions and unit root testing incorporating structural breaks to investigate the time series dynamics. Our findings will have significant implications for Australia's regional and ageing policy platforms.

Alliayah Tubman, Michael Neubert, Perry Haan, Ardia Kaikai, 2021

Traditionally, economics' focus was on the household as one of three economic actors, the other being firms and governments. Economists generally agree that economic development and growth are influenced by four factors: human resources, physical capital, natural resources, and technology. These determinants of economic growth are interrelated factors influencing the growth rate of an economy. Economic growth measured by GDP means the increase of the growth rate of GDP, but what determines the increase of each component is very different. The purpose of this study is to explore and understand the economic effects of increasing female work participation which can lead to growth in GDP and global prosperity. The case study was focused on the situation in the Netherlands. The findings show that the proportion of women working part-time is extremely higher than the men, the share of women occupying a top position in the public and private sector is lower than the share of men, and a law is being tabled in the Dutch parliament which would force listed companies to have at least a third of women on their supervisory board. Gender equality in STEM education and occupation is significantly low, the wage pay gap between men and women is shrinking at a low rate, and the gender gap becomes apparent in jobs with hourly wages of 30 euros or higher, in which men are over-represented in terms of the wage distribution. If women were to participate in the world of work identically to men, an additional $28 trillion, or 26 percent of incremental global GDP, could be achieved in 2025. Recommendations are provided that may be useful in the Netherlands and the world at large.

Journal of Population Economics, 1996

Data on women from the British 1958 Cohort Study is used as evidence on the determinants of their labour force participation at age 33. A conventional cross-sectional model of full or part-time employment makes use of some longitudinal material not normally included in such models. Whether the woman made the hitherto customary break from employment at the time of the first maternity is included in recognition that this cohort was among the first generation to be offered Statutory Maternity Leave. Results suggest that the presence of children (still) inhibits full-time employment and raises the probability of part-time employment; that income effects on participation have continued to weaken while wage elasticity for full-time employment is high. Continuity of employment straight after childbearing raises the chances of subsequent full-time employment, but by no means guarantees it. Gains from maternity leave and other family friendly employment policies have been far from uniform. JEL classification: J 22, J 13

As is well known fact that women’s full integration into the labour market plays a key role for their personal and social development and also serves to increase the general economic efficiency of the country. However, Turkish women’s participation in paid work is at the lowest level among the European Union countries. According to the latest official statistics the labour force participation rate is 71.05 % for males and 30.8% for females (TUIK, 2015). The existing literature relating to women’s labour force participation in Turkey is mostly based on analyzing main determinants of the participation decision and the nature and the characteristics of women in labour force (Gedikli, 2014; Dayioglu & Kirdar, 2010; Ercan and et al; 2010; Goksel, 2012, Ilkkaracan, 2012). There has been paid a little attention to the analysis of female labour market inactivity especially the reasons of women’s non-participation in the labour market. Therefore the purpose of this study is to examine the characteristics of non-working women in Bandirma in Turkey. Using micro level data, we explores the main determinants of non-working decision of women specifically, the role of family age, income, education, dependent child age, marital status, and also social and traditional norms. The results indicate that being married, childcare responsibilities, education, and social and traditional norms are very important factors that affect women’s decision to work. The findings of this study aim o provide useful material for policy makers and researchers to specify policy implication to increase women’s labour participation in Turkey.

American Journal of Economics and …, 2011

2012

ISBN 9985-820-93-3 * Index is based on gender related items (G1b, d, e, g) Source: the IPPAS data.

Australian Journal of Social Issues, 1987

Job loss in manufacturing industry has been a marked feature of the Australian economy over the last decade but little is known about the prospects for re-employment of workers who have been retrenched. This paper reports the results of a survey of the subsequent labour market experiences of 271 workers made redundant when a whitegoods plant was closed in December 1982 at Bankstown in Sydney's western suburbs. The retrenched workers were contacted twice, ten to twelve months apart and a response rate of 80 per cent was achieved. The paper compares the labour market experiences of retrenched women and men: Does the lower labour force participation rate of women in the population at large apply to women who have previously shown a strong commitment to the labour force through their stable employment history? The paper discusses. the factors which might affect retrenched women's response to unemployment, including institutional arrangements, a gender-based domestic division of labour and the nature of the jobs available to unskilled blue collar workers. This paper describes and attempts to explain the impact of job loss on established workers who were retrenched through a plant closure. The particular focus of the paper is on the subsequent labour market experiences of the retrenched women compared with those of the retrenched men. For the population as a whole the proportion of women who are employed or actively seeking work (i.e. labour force participants) is much lower than that of men. The labour force participation rate of women aged 15 years and over during 1983, for example, was 44 per cent compared with 76 per cent for men in the same age grouping. These differences are due to a range of institutional arrangements such as eligibility for unemployment benefits, a crude gender-based domestic division of labour, and occupational segregation of the labour market, which affect adversely women's labour force participation, especially among young women seeking their first job or women re-entering the labour force after a long absence. But it is not known whether these Richard Curtain is a principal executive officer with the Heavy Engineering Board with responsibilities for skills upgrading and retrenchment assistance. Prior to this position he was with the Bureau of Labour Market Research. The analysis on which this paper is based was conducted while the author was a postdoctoral fellow in the

2020

This paper examines the last 25 years of Australian mothers' labour for participation, with particular focus on the unusual mid-2000s period where the gap between partnered and lone mothers' employment rates almost halved. Following Gray et al. (2003), multinomial logit models of the determinants of lone and partnered mothers' labour force status are estimated in 1998-99 and 2009-10. The changes between 1998 99 and 2009-10 are then decomposed using an extension of the Oaxaca method. The results indicate that most of the changes in the predicted labour force probabilities between 1998-99 and 2009-10 are due to changes in the estimated coefficients rather than the average characteristics of lone and partnered mothers. While the reasons for the changes in the estimated coefficient cannot be directly identified, this study suggests that strong economic conditions during the period increased lone mothers' incentives and opportunities to work.

2023

The proportion of women in the labor force is critical for a country's economic and social growth. Women's labor-force participation has long been a source of considerable interest and concern in Sri Lanka, as it is in many other countries, due to its potential repercussions on the nation's overall growth. Despite commendable gains in social empowerment and women's education over the last few years, female labor force participation rates in Sri Lanka still remain below the optimal levels. Thus, the purpose of this study is to look into the critical factors that have influence over women’s decision to participate in the workforce. The target population thus, the female workforce in Sri Lanka. Geographic focus is narrowed down into North Western province which has been reported as a region renowned for its distinctive socioeconomic and cultural traits that have a different impact on female labour participation than other parts of the nation. Sampling method adopted for the study is random sampling as this follows the quantitative approach. A systematic survey is carried out on a sample of the representative women in the North Western Province to gather required data. A number of significant factors including sociocultural factors, educational attainment, working environment, obligations to one's family, financial factors and legal and legislative factors has been evaluated by the researcher. The quantitative analysis such as descriptive and inferential statistics has been used to generate the findings. The study also contributes to the body of information already available on female labour contribution in Sri Lanka by providing insights that are used in other nations and areas working to advance gender equality and the economic empowerment of women. The findings unraveled the six key factors that have influence on female labour participation though each factor showed different levels of impact. Future researchers are advised to focus on more provinces in the country to come into more concrete conclusions.