Animal Hypnosis in the Rabbit

Neuroscience Letters, 1979

Plasma corticosterone has been correlated with the suscep Libility ~o animal hypnosis ill male rabbits. Subjects (Ss) were considered susceptible when mean hypnosis duration was above 30 sec or when initial du_r~tion (duration of tri~l 1) was ~>0. A positive significant co,elation was found between mean and initial duration A significant difference was found between cortio costerone levels in susceptible and unsusceptibl,e Ss: hig[,er values were associated with susceptible Ss and with Ss with initial duration > 0. These results indicate a higher susceptibility to animal hypnosis in rabbits with a more active adrenocortic~l system. Animal hypnosis, an immobility response characterized by elec~rophysiological and behavioral modifications has been also related to endocrine parameters [4] For instance, in the rabbit, there is a negative correlation between plasma testosterone levels and hypnosis duration and a reductiou of brain testosterone me'~bolism afte:r hypnosis treatment (4 ] .The L'~duction of this kind of immobility, ht, v.-ever, does not affect coztiscostcrone plasma levels after a single hypnosis episode (unpublished results).

Psychological Reports, 1975

The objective of the present experiment was to determine whether hypnosis without explicit suggestion of analgesia would diminish physiological responses to an operationally defined painful shock stimulus. Muscle tension (EMG) was significantly lower during hypnosis than pre- or posthypnosis. Pulse rate remained stable throughout all conditions. Also, the question of whether a tone paired with shock might acquire some unique property because of that association was investigated. It was found that EMG response to the tone alone was significantly greater than to the tone-shock combination, in prehypnosis and posthypnosis, but not during hypnosis.

Journal of Scientific Exploration, 2012

The two-hundred-year history of hypnosis and its predecessor, animal magnetism, is replete with stories of unusual phenomena. Perhaps surprisingly, a close reading of that history reveals that investigators and students of hypnosis have been unable to achieve an agreed-upon definition of their subject matter. Because of this failure to describe the essential nature of hypnosis, they resorted to lists of hypnotic phenomena as a means for confirming the presence of a hypnotic state in clinical and experimental situations. However, identification and enumeration of hypnotic phenomena proved to be problematic. The content of these lists varied from era to era and from practitioner to practitioner, and the selection of phenomena seemed to be an arbitrary process. With no agreed-upon definition and no definitive list of phenomena that would apply to hypnosis and hypnosis alone, there was no way to ensure that the "hypnosis" that was being studied in clinical and experimental work was identical from one case to the next. This article offers a definition of hypnosis that is not based on lists of phenomena.

Impairment of Hypnosis by Nocebo Response and Related Neurovegetative Changes: A Case Report in Oral Surgery, 2024

This article presents the third molar removal in a highly hypnotizable patient, who had been successfully submitted to oral surgery with hypnosis as stand-alone anesthesia in previous sessions. Unexpectedly, hypnosis initially failed, as a result of a nocebo response due to a previous dentist's bad communication; two complaints made by the patient were associated with increased sympathetic activity (as defined by increased heart rate and electrodermal activity and decreased heart rate variability). After deepening of hypnosis, the patient achieved a full hypnotic analgesia allowing for a successful conclusion of the intervention, an event associated with decreased heart rate, electrodermal activity, and increased heart rate variability. Hence, the initial failure was paralleled by a decreased parasympathetic activity and increased sympathetic activity, while hypnotic analgesia was associated with the opposite pattern. The patient's postoperative report indicated that the initial failure of hypnosis depended on a strong nocebo effect because of a previous dentist distrusting hypnosis and persuading her that it was not enough to face a third molar removal.

Neurophysiologie Clinique/Clinical Neurophysiology, 2013

We here review behavioral, neuroimaging and electrophysiological studies of hypnosis as a state, as well as hypnosis as a tool to modulate brain responses to painful stimulations. Studies have shown that hypnotic processes modify internal (self awareness) as well as external (environmental awareness) brain networks. Brain mechanisms underlying the modulation of pain perception under hypnotic conditions involve cortical as well as subcortical areas including anterior cingulate and prefrontal cortices, basal ganglia and thalami. Combined with local anesthesia and conscious sedation in patients undergoing surgery, hypnosis is associated with improved periand postoperative comfort of patients and surgeons. Finally, hypnosis can be considered as a useful analogue for simulating conversion and dissociation symptoms in healthy subjects, permitting better characterization of these challenging disorders by producing clinically similar experiences.

Psychology, 2016

Although taken for granted today by people and by some experts, the unconscious has never been experimentally demonstrated. Even for the psychoanalysts, the unconscious is nothing more than a model. The unconscious, if anything, is normally obscured by conscious activities and can only express itself in response to conditions leading to non-ordinary mental expressions, for instance during hypnosis. For many years, we have been using hypnosis in variegating experimental setting, and we think one of the evidences coming from our tests is the experimental demonstration that the unconscious exists and can be forced to respond to solicitations the participant is not aware of. We administered hypnotic suggestions to highly-hypnotizable normal participants with the aim of inducing hallucination of body heating, alexia, amusia, spatial neglect, focused analgesia, general anaesthesia, and age regression. Following such suggestions, participants actually experienced a sensation of heat, incapability to read, lack of interest in a side of the world, indifference to painful stimuli, and revivification of infantile age, respectively. But this is not all. Through the above-mentioned suggestions we also obtained some physical reactions that could only be defined as unconscious, i.e. increase of the stroke volume and of the mesenteric artery flow following hallucinated body heating, reduction of reaction times to incongruent color words in a Stroop task following alexia, prolongation of ipsilateral reaction times following spatial neglect, reduction of mismatch negativity to deviant stimuli following hypnotic amusia, coherent modifications of the sympathetic/parasympathetic balance to trigeminal and non-trigeminal pain during analgesia and anaesthesia, reduction of Raven score and Raven-induced stress during age regression. These responses evoked during hypnosis in response to mental images are clearly non-voluntary and non-conscious, and demonstrate in experimental setting with the tools that are typical of human physiology-the existence of unconscious to perceive and react.

Consciousness and Cognition, 2011

Research in cognitive neuroscience now considers the state of the brain prior to the task an important aspect of performance. Hypnosis seems to alter the brain state in a way which allows external input to dominate over internal goals. We examine how normal development may illuminate the hypnotic state. In their paper designed to relate research on hypnosis to neuroscience Raz and Shapiro (2002) say: "Historically, hypnosis was defined as an altered state of consciousness, characterized by heightened compliance with suggestion and extreme focused attention. Whereas this definition presumes a specific theoretical view, over the years this characterization of hypnosis was gradually refined and amended to reflect a more theoretically neutral approach. Nonetheless, one persistent barrier to the scientific use of hypnosis has been the idea that it involves a special and "mysterious" state of consciousness, often referred to as trance." Page 85 Recently there has been great interest in cognitive neuroscience in the specification of brain states. Throughout the history of brain research there has been competition between an emphasis on intrinsic brain activity and stimulation from sensory input. The discovery, following World War II, of the reticular activating system (Moruzzi & Magoun, 1949) turned attention to sleep wake cycles, and arousal functions and led to the discoveries of a number of neuro modulatory systems.

Contemporary Hypnosis, 1998

Neuropsychophysiological evidence is reviewed testing a three-stage, top-down working model of the traditional hypnotic relaxation induction involving: (1) a thalamocortical attentional network engaging a left frontolimbic focused attention control system underpinning sensory fixation and concentration on the induction; (2) instatement of frontolimbic inhibitory systems through suggestions of tiredness at fixation and relaxation whereby anterior executive functions are suspended and directed by the induction; (3) engagement of right-sided temporoposterior functions through passive imagery and dreaming. A selectivity of action in high susceptibles was a hallmark of the studies. Increased Stroop interference coincided with maintenance of error detection and abolition of error evaluation potentials, interpreted as dissociation of cognitive and affective executive systems of the anterior cingulate. Verbal, category and design fluency tasks were dissociated with hypnosis centring on left anterior processes as seen in left lateral and medial reduced EEG connectivity. Limbic modulated electrodermal orienting responses and frontal modulated mismatch negativity waves were inhibited. Asymmetries in electrodermal and electrocortical responses to tones shifted to favour the right hemisphere, an asymmetry also seen in visual sensitivity. Haptic processing and visual sensitivity disclosed more distributed changes in medium susceptibles, while low susceptibles were characterized by poorer attentional functions at baseline and improvements through the induction.

The International journal of clinical and experimental hypnosis, 2015

Evidence supports the efficacy of hypnotic treatments, but there remain many unresolved questions regarding how hypnosis produces its beneficial effects. Most theoretical models focus more or less on biological, psychological, and social factors. This scoping review summarizes the empirical findings regarding the associations between specific factors in each of these domains and response to hypnosis. The findings indicate that (a) no single factor appears primary, (b) different factors may contribute more or less to outcomes in different subsets of individuals or for different conditions, and (c) comprehensive models of hypnosis that incorporate factors from all 3 domains may ultimately prove to be more useful than more restrictive models that focus on just 1 or a very few factors.

Scientific Reports

Hypnosis can be considered an altered state of consciousness in which individuals produce movements under suggestion without apparent voluntary control. Despite its application in contexts implying motor control, evidence for the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying hypnosis is scarce. Inter-individual differences in hypnotic susceptibility suggest that sensorimotor strategies may manifest in a hypnotic state. We tested by means of transcranial magnetic stimulation applied over the primary motor cortex whether motor system activation during a motor imagery task differs in the awake and in the hypnotic state. To capture individual differences, 30 healthy volunteers were classified as high or low hypnotizable (Highs and Lows) according to ad-hoc validated scales measuring hypnotic susceptibility and personality questionnaires. Corticospinal activation during motor imagery in the hypnotic state was greater in the Highs than the Lows. Intrinsic motivation in task performance and lev...

2012

Frontiers in psychology, 2024

Aspects of hypnosis and its application in psychotherapy, psychosomatics and medicine are examined and contextualized in the 250-year history of hypnosis. Imagination as an essential element of hypnotic treatments appeared as early as 1784 as an argument rejecting the theory of animal magnetism of Franz Anton Mesmer. In somnambulism of German romanticism, another proto-form of hypnosis after 1800, concepts of the mind-body problem were dealt with, which still characterize the understanding of unconscious mental processes today. Hypnosis was at the beginning of psychoanalysis, but was not pursued further by Sigmund Freud from 1900 onwards. Nevertheless, there were some hypnoanalytical approaches in the 20th century, as well as attempts to integrate hypnosis into behavior therapy. Techniques of imagination and relaxation combine both; in particular findings from cognitive psychology explain processes of both hypnosis and cognitive behavioral therapy. The influence of social psychology brought a new perspective to the debate about the nature of hypnosis, which continues to this day: is hypnosis to be understood as a special state of consciousness or is it a completely normal, mundane interaction? The experiments that were carried out to support one side or the other were also dependent on the hypnotizability of the subjects involved, as the more difficult hypnotic phenomena such as paralysis, hallucinations or identity delusions can only be demonstrated by highly hypnotizable subjects. The fact that these are not mere compliance reactions has now been proven by many studies using imaging techniques. But even those who are moderately hypnotizable benefit from hypnosis rituals. Variables postulated by socio-cognitive hypnosis researchers, such as motivation and expectation, are relevant, as is a good "hypnotic rapport." Practical application of hypnotherapy today is characterized by the innovative techniques and strategies developed by Milton H. Erickson. Research into the effectiveness of hypnosis in the field of psychotherapy and psychosomatics still leaves much to be done. The situation is different in the field of medical hypnosis, where there are considerably more studies with a satisfactory design and verifiable effects. However, the impact in practical application in everyday medical practice is still low. Newer developments such as virtual reality and artificial intelligence are being looked at with critical interest.

2010

Brain mechanisms of hypnosis are poorly known. Cognitive accounts proposed that executive attentional systems may cause selective inhibition or disconnection of some mental operations. To assess motor and inhibitory brain circuits during hypnotic paralysis, we designed a go-nogo task while volunteers underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in three conditions: normal state, hypnotic left-hand paralysis, and feigned paralysis. Preparatory activation arose in right motor cortex despite left hypnotic paralysis, indicating preserved motor intentions, but with concomitant increases in precuneus regions that normally mediate imagery and selfawareness. Precuneus also showed enhanced functional connectivity with right motor cortex. Right frontal areas subserving inhibition were activated by nogo trials in normal state and by feigned paralysis, but irrespective of motor blockade or execution during hypnosis. These results suggest that hypnosis may enhance self-monitoring processes to allow internal representations generated by the suggestion to guide behavior but does not act through direct motor inhibition. Neuron Voluntary Inhibition during Hypnotic Paralysis

Neuroscience of Consciousness

This article summarizes key advances in hypnosis research during the past two decades, including (i) clinical research supporting the efficacy of hypnosis for managing a number of clinical symptoms and conditions, (ii) research supporting the role of various divisions in the anterior cingulate and prefrontal cortices in hypnotic responding, and (iii) an emerging finding that high hypnotic suggestibility is associated with atypical brain connectivity profiles. Key recommendations for a research agenda for the next decade include the recommendations that (i) laboratory hypnosis researchers should strongly consider how they assess hypnotic suggestibility in their studies, (ii) inclusion of study participants who score in the middle range of hypnotic suggestibility, and (iii) use of expanding research designs that more clearly delineate the roles of inductions and specific suggestions. Finally, we make two specific suggestions for helping to move the field forward including (i) the use of data sharing and (ii) redirecting resources away from contrasting state and nonstate positions toward studying (a) the efficacy of hypnotic treatments for clinical conditions influenced by central nervous system processes and (b) the neurophysiological underpinnings of

International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 2012

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