Energies 16 01739 with cover

Dr. Manikandan G.

2023, Review of Waste Cooking Oil (WCO) as a Feedstock for Biofuel—Indian Perspective

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A detailed review was conducted to explore waste cooking oil (WCO) as feedstock for biodiesel. The manuscript highlights the impact on health while using used cooking oil and the scope for revenue generation from WCO. Up to a 20% blend with diesel results in less pollutants, and it does not demand more modifications to the engine. Also, this reduces the country’s import bill. Furthermore, it suggests the scope for alternate sustainable income among rural farmers through a circular economy. Various collection strategies are discussed, a SWOC (strength, weakness, opportunity, and challenges) analysis is presented to aid in understanding different countries’ policies regarding the collection of WCO, and a more suitable method for conversion is pronounced. A techno-economic analysis is presented to explore the viability of producing 1 litre of biodiesel. The cost of 1 litre of WCO-based biodiesel is compared with costs Iran and Pakistan, and it is noticed that the difference among them is less than 1%. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is mandatory to reveal the impact of WCO biodiesel on socio-economic and environmental concerns. Including exergy analysis will provide comprehensive information about the production and justification of WCO as a biodiesel. Keywords: waste cooking oil; biodiesel; circular economy; economic analysis

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Figure 1. Circular economy for WCO Collection. and as a result, many countries co 1. biodiesel enterprise takeback (BET), and 2. third successful WCO recovery coun the TPT mechanism, and other countries like China, B h some modifications to suit their specific cond unique circular economy model consumes wi in operators ( po lac WCO is col Even with all these advantages, the collection of WCO comes with many problems, Figure 1 the third largest amount of e the world. Of that total, 40% of the oi tential of over 15% of the oi k of an effective supply chain and en ected. This vast ga to formulate and release a determined Goods and Services Tax imposed on biod use of WCO as a feedstock [10]. ries, like the United o forced the various sta biofuel policy in the year 2018. In addition, the iesel was reduced from 12% to 5% to increase the T ) for WCO co dible vegeta is consumed forced collect have developed their own regulatory and incentive-based lection mechanisms. In general, there are two types of WCO collection mechanisms: -party takeback (TPT). Most of the States of America and Japan, follow azil, etc., follow the BET mechanism itions [3]. India, too, developed a lection from different sources. India ble oil (over 24,660 ML per annum) by commercial food and beverage FBO) and the remaining 60% by domestic households. Although the huge consumption is there for biodiesel production, due to the ion mechanism, only 0.133% of the keholders of the Indian government

oils has been predominant even in recent years Figure 2). Moreover, the availability of wasteland and water resources for the cultivation of non-edible vegetable feedstocks poses a considerable problem, leaving WCO as the only sustainable option for biodiesel producti Nevertheless, the safe disposal of WCO is an add 10Nn. ed advantage for using it as a feedstock. Most often, WCO is not disposed of but used until the last drop, leaving the consumers with several health hazards. Especially, WCO in big commercial food establishmen sold to small eateries and used in household app ts is ications which amount to nearly 60% of the total edible oil consumption. Due to this, it was evident that consumers contracted many non-communicable diseases like cardiovas cular diseases, cancer, and organ fai Therefore, WCO could be an excellent option for biodiesel production [1]. ure.

Table 1. SWOC analysis of different countries’ WCO collection policies.

Table 1. Cont. India at present adopts a strategy of education, enforcement, and ecosystem (EEE) for collecting WCO from households and FBOs. Considering the growing urbanisation and younger demographic ad vantage, this strategy is appropriate. However, the implementa: tion of stricter rules and regulations at the grassroots level by enforcing agencies like the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) and the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas are found to be ineffective [2]. India should adopt an incentive-based approach similar to that of the developed nations mentioned above to increase WCO collection Initiatives like eat-right campus awards among educational institutions effectively educate the student population a bout the harmful effects of reusing WCO in the food chain. This rating should be made mandatory for all accreditations of educational institutions [40,41] The FSSAI should also consider enforcing stricter regulations for FBOs consuming less

Figure 3. Recommended WCO collection model based on the SWOC analysis from the information RUCO [10].

Figure 4. Schematic of the transesterification process with bifunctional catalysts. Many conversion technologies are available for turning WCO into biodiesel, like hy- drotreating, gasification, pyrolysis, and transesterification [18]. However, Tabatabaei et al. [48] reported that the transesterification technique is the most economical and environment- friendly conversion method for biodiesel production from WCO after comprehensively reviewing all the conversion technologies. Transesterification is the process of fatty acid or vegetable oil reaction in the presence of a monohydric alcohol, catalysts, and heat over a period of time (Figure 4) [49-51].

Table 2. Competitiveness of transesterification process for WCO biodiesel production. Even with these advantages, several studies reported limitations of the transesterifi- cation process for WCO biodiesel conversion due to its high FFA content. Generally, oils having greater than 1% content of FFAs are not suitable for transesterification using basic catalysts. Without pre-treatment, the biodiesel yield will be drastically reduced because of the saponification effect. However, these pre-treatment processes are expensive and time-consuming and need to be replaced with methods using more effective heterogeneous solid bifunctional catalysts [49,6366].

Figure 6. Esterification reaction of biodiesel from fatty acids.

* Energy equivalent data is not available in [81]. Table 3. Quantities inputs and outputs for producing one litre of biodiesel.

Table 4. Energy indicators comparison of India and Iran

Figure 7. Input energy details for biodiesel production—(a) India and (b) Iran.

Figure 8. Comparison of energy indicators in biodiesel production for India and Iran.