Young, Witch in the Scales: Bible Weighing in England and America

Boston University Undergraduate Thesis, 2019

This paper explores the use of children as key witnesses in three sets of witch trials (Pendle, Lancashire, and Salem) from the seventeenth-century and why the testimonies were accepted. This acceptance has its roots in the English legal system, religion, and the beliefs of James I.

2011

Witchcraft, Witch-Hunting, and Politics in Early Modern England, 2016

The supernatural has lately emerged as a key theme in studies of early modern Europe, with witchcraft continuing to be a particularly richly researched area. While few historians would disagree that politics "shaped patterns of witch-hunting" in early modern England (1), none has as yet argued this as comprehensively or in as much detail as Peter Elmer in this important, infuriating book. Elmer's arguments are properly complex, circling back to key ideas and teasing away at apparent contradictions. The specificities of local circumstances are acknowledged, but not viewed in isolation from broader developments. There is no inherent link, it is alleged, between puritanism and witch-hunting, although the evidence cited nonetheless demonstrates that most prosecutors of witches were puritans, while sceptics, in most periods, tended to be Anglicans. Witch prosecutions had potentially contradictory significance, since they sometimes served as an "agent of political consensus", bringing communities together against a common enemy, but could equally lead to "acute polarization" (7). Elmer aspires to deal with both witchcraft theory and the practices of witch hunting, although he properly notes that there is no simple or necessary relationship between the two. Moreover, while theories and metaphors of witchcraft were remarkably consistent and long-lived, the actual prosecution of witches was not a "regular or uniform process" (1); explaining its peaks and troughs in political terms is one of the achievements of the book. Witch prosecutions, Elmer argues, happened at times when the authorities found their sense of order threatened. When a government, even a puritan government, felt its authority secure, as in Dorchester between 1629 and 1637, there were no witch trials (85), although they continued elsewhere. He concludes that witch trials ended in the early eighteenth century not so much with the coming of the new sciencemany of those who continued to argue for the reality of witchcraft and the propriety of its prosecution were advocates of the new sciencebut as a more "pluralistic polity" (298) emerged. This is not a new argument-Stuart Clark, Michael Hunter and others have voiced similar viewsbut Elmer's arguments are well supported and offer fresh insights into some important cases.

inter-disciplinary.net

Witchcraft is construed by many historians and anthropologists as the most extreme expression of female deviance and empowerment. Charges of the crime of witchcraft were time and again levied against women who were imagined as eluding or subverting the social conventions of patriarchal control. Besides this, more than mere inherited medieval superstitions, witchcraft beliefs were also ideas that evolved, varied from cultural context to cultural context and ended up undergoing their biggest changes and pervasiveness during the Early Modern Period -both in the Old and in the New World. Thus, the Early Modern Period's stereotype of the witch is viewed by many scholars as the ultimate representation of society's misogynistic fear of female deviance and evil.

Culture & History Digital Journal, 2018

Long before the prosecution of individuals for witchcraft was rendered a legal impossibility in the states of modern Europe, the judicial and executive institutions of those states and their precursors were decisive in both legitimating and moderating, facilitating and constraining the detection, trial, and execution of alleged witches. If we are to impute more than unresolved cognitive dissonance to this paradoxical relationship of the apparatus of state to the perceived reality and threat of witchcraft, then the preconditions and contextual factors predicating that relationship bear investigation. This paper identifies genealogical traces of criminological, political, social, and religious thought embedded within several pivotal bodies of early-modern law pertaining to witchcraft, and attempts to infer the cultural, institutional, and textual sources and conditions from which they derive.

London : John Russell Smith, Soho Square + The New Alexandria Library of Texas , 1862

The Wonders of the Invisible World explores the supernatural realm as a tangible and active force influencing the events of the Salem witch trials. Cotton Mather presents detailed accounts of alleged interactions with demonic entities, highlighting the pervasive belief that witchcraft was a direct manifestation of the Devil's influence in the mortal world. The book describes spectral appearances, possessions, and other phenomena attributed to the workings of demons and witches in concert with Satan. Mather documents testimonies where accused individuals were said to have consorted with demonic forces, signing pacts with the Devil in exchange for power or to harm others. These entities are described as instigating physical and spiritual afflictions, such as mysterious illnesses, fits, and unexplained deaths within the community. The text also delves into the methods through which witches and demons were believed to operate, including the use of spells, curses, and spectral projections to torment victims. The book portrays the supernatural realm as intricately connected to the visible world, with demons actively working to undermine human societies by sowing chaos and turning individuals away from divine principles. Demonic forces are said to wield immense power, capable of influencing natural events and bending reality to their will. The narrative suggests that these forces were orchestrating a deliberate attack on New England, a community perceived as a bastion of divine order. Mather also includes accounts of combatting these supernatural threats through prayer, fasting, and judicial intervention, emphasizing the importance of vigilance against demonic plots. The book provides a detailed window into the perceived nature of demons, their goals, and their influence over both the accused witches and their victims, offering a vivid depiction of a world where the supernatural and human domains were believed to intersect directly. Contents of the Discourse on the Wonders of the Invisible World • Extracts from Dr. Horneck • Similarity in the circumstances of witchcraft in New England and Sweden. • Matter omitted in the trials. • The Devil Discovered • Case proposed: What are the usual methods of temptation with which the powers of darkness assault the children of men? • Remarks on the three remarkable assaults of temptation visibly made by the Devil upon our Lord: • The First Temptation. • The Second Temptation. • The Third Temptation. • A Further Account of the Trials of the New England Witches • A true narrative by Deodat Lawson, relating to sundry persons afflicted by witchcraft (March 19 to April 5, 1692). • Remarks on the extraordinary phenomena observed among afflicted persons. • Remarks concerning the accused. • A further account of the trials, sent in a letter from New England to a gentleman in London. • Cases of Conscience Concerning Evil Spirits Personating Men, Etc. • Address to the Christian reader by fourteen influential gentlemen. • Cases of Conscience Concerning Witchcraft • First case proposed: Can Satan appear in the shape of an innocent and pious person as well as a guilty and wicked one to afflict those suffering from diabolical molestation? • The affirmative proven by six arguments: • From several Scriptures. • From the possibility of Satan misrepresenting innocent persons, supported by historical instances. • From the fact that if Satan may not do so, it must either be due to a lack of will, power, or divine permission. • From Scripture and history confirming that magicians may cause false representations through enchantments. • From the judgment of many learned men. • From personal experiences confirming these possibilities. • Second case considered: If one bewitched is afflicted by the look or gaze of another, and subsequently recovered by a touch from the same person, does this prove the accused is in covenant with the Devil? • Answer: Grounds for suspicion and examination but not for conviction. • Arguments Against Infallible Proofs of Witchcraft • The falling down with a gaze may stem from arbitrary rather than natural causes. • The recovery of the afflicted through touch is variable and unreliable. • Questioning the legality and morality of certain tests for witches, such as: • Suspected persons sinking or swimming in water. • The bewitched being struck by the gaze of accused persons. • The bewitched falling under the gaze of animals, such as dogs. • Testimony from bewitched or possessed persons is not considered reliable evidence. • Third Case Considered • Are there any reliable discoveries of witchcraft upon which jurors and judges may safely proceed to conviction and condemnation? • Preliminary points: • Evidence in witchcraft cases should be as clear as for any other crime. • Traditional methods of testing witches, such as throwing them into water, are neither valid nor approved by God. • Conviction of Witches • Valid proofs for conviction include: • Free and voluntary confession. • Testimony of witnesses who observe acts only possible through familiarity with the Devil. • Historical examples cited. Continuation of Contents • Conviction of Witches (continued) • Reasons against the validity of certain witchcraft "proofs": • It is possible for afflicted persons to be possessed by evil spirits, not bewitched by another human. • Falling down due to a gaze does not result from natural causes but arbitrary forces. • Recovery by a touch from the accused is inconsistent and not a reliable indicator. • Experiments such as using the afflicted's reaction to determine guilt are questionable and sometimes unlawful. • Testimony from bewitched or possessed individuals is unreliable regarding accusations against others. • Bewitched individuals have even been struck down by the looks of animals, such as dogs, which cannot signify a pact with the Devil. • The notion of an "infallible proof" creates difficulties in distinguishing actual witches. • Scripture does not support such "infallible" proofs of witchcraft. • Natural antipathies may cause unexplainable effects that mimic witchcraft. • The Third Case Considered • What discoveries of witchcraft allow jurors and judges to proceed with a safe conscience to convict the accused? • Preliminary considerations: • Evidence in witchcraft cases must meet the same standards as other crimes. • Historical methods like "swimming" witches (testing whether the accused sinks or floats) are invalid and sinful. • Acceptable Grounds for Conviction • A free and voluntary confession by the accused. • Testimony by two credible witnesses who observed actions only achievable through diabolical means. • A review of previous instances and historical precedents supporting these standards. • Postscript • Additional remarks cautioning jurors to weigh evidence carefully and avoid falling into errors or hysteria. Tags Related to book below: Witchcraft, 2. Demonic possession, 3. Salem witch trials, 4. Cotton Mather, 5. Increase Mather, 6. Puritan beliefs, 7. Spectral evidence, 8. The Devil, 9. Witch hysteria, 10. Diabolical temptation, 11. Evil spirits, 12. Bewitched individuals, 13. Supernatural phenomena, 14. Witchcraft accusations, 15. Historical witchcraft, 16. Theocratic justice, 17. Religious superstition, 18. Demonology, 19. Devil’s appearance, 20. Witchcraft trials, 21. 17th-century theology, 22. Puritan witchcraft, 23. Satanic pacts, 24. Possession, 25. Exorcism, 26. Witchcraft confessions, 27. Witch trials in New England, 28. Satanic influences, 29. False representation, 30. Evil forces, 31. Supernatural forces, 32. Puritanism, 33. Salem witchcraft, 34. Spiritual warfare, 35. Diabolical molestation, 36. Witchcraft in Europe, 37. Witchcraft in Sweden, 38. Puritan society, 39. Puritan justice, 40. Trials of witches, 41. Witchcraft persecution, 42. Witchcraft testimony, 43. Witch accusations, 44. Witch hunts, 45. Religious zealotry, 46. Possessed children, 47. Witchcraft symbols, 48. Forbidden knowledge, 49. Demon possession, 50. Theological debates, 51. False witnesses, 52. Superstition and religion, 53. Tainted confessions, 54. Exorcisms in Puritan New England, 55. Ghosts and spirits, 56. Temptation of Christ, 57. Biblical interpretations, 58. Dark arts, 59. Satanic rituals, 60. Magick, 61. Witchcraft and Christianity, 62. Supernatural justice, 63. Puritan worldview, 64. Puritan theology, 65. Witchcraft in history, 66. Witchcraft trials in Europe, 67. Witchcraft and the Bible, 68. Old World witchcraft, 69. Colonial American witchcraft, 70. Bewitched townspeople, 71. The Devil’s work, 72. Witchcraft in colonial America, 73. Spiritual affliction, 74. Witchcraft and sin, 75. Religious persecution, 76. Witchcraft and gender, 77. Witchcraft and fear, 78. Occultism in New England, 79. Witchcraft practices, 80. The Devil’s influence, 81. Witchcraft and morality, 82. 17th-century beliefs, 83. Social justice in the 17th century, 84. Witchcraft rituals, 85. Witchcraft and magic, 86. Theological discourse, 87. Satan’s power, 88. Witch trials in Massachusetts, 89. Accused witches, 90. Witchcraft trials in America, 91. Spiritual torment, 92. Puritan trials, 93. Theological beliefs in witchcraft, 94. Religious conflict, 95. Witchcraft and confession, 96. Witchcraft hysteria, 97. Puritan leadership, 98. The role of fear, 99. Spiritual warfare in New England, 100. Puritan religious practices, 101. Accusation of witchcraft, 102. Witchcraft and law, 103. Witchcraft trials and law, 104. Witchcraft in the Bible, 105. Colonial witchcraft beliefs, 106. Spiritual purity, 107. Witchcraft and confession as evidence, 108. Women and witchcraft, 109. Supernatural manifestations, 110. Demonic apparitions, 111. Trials based on superstition, 112. Witchcraft rituals in history, 113. Witchcraft in the American colonies, 114. Role of the Devil in witchcraft, 115. Witchcraft and the Church, 116. Fear of witchcraft, 117. Witchcraft accusations against women, 118. Historical trials of witches, 119. Wit...

Preternature: Critical and Historical Studies on the Preternatural

Fortid, 2021

This essay discusses the historical origins of the witchcraft trial phenomenon, its roots, and the causes for its occurrence in New England from a historical, social, anthropological, and gender perspective. Salem witchcraft had its roots in Europe and in order to understand it one should comprehend the worldview of late-seventeenth-century Puritan New Englanders, who lived in a pre-Enlightenment world. As many historians and researchers have pointed out the people of Salem experienced a number of hardships at the time of the witch trials, such as economic struggles, disease epidemics, war, political dissension, and factionalism and thus the Salem witchcraft trials cannot be described apart from its social, cultural, theological, economic, and political contexts. Moreover, understanding the geographical and chronological phases of the trials and investigations is important. Finally, it is interesting to see how growing awareness of feminist perspectives on history, have generated a new feminist interpretation of the witchcraft trials.

Medical History 42 /4, pp 544-545, 1998

A trial of witches: a seventeenth-century witchcraft prosecution, London and New York, Routledge, 1997, pp. xix, 284, illus., £45.00 (hardback 0-415-17108-3), £14.99 (paperback 0-415-17109-1).