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2010
The issue of taxes has always been a highly politicized one in the UK, and never more so than in 2009 as the UK government discusses how to rebalance its budget after rescuing its banking sector with its economy suffering its most severe financial crisis since the 1930s. Debates about taxes, however have tended to focus mainly on the overall level of taxation and government expenditure and on distributional effects between households. With the exception of the work of the Women's Budget Group, a think tank that regularly comments on the gender implications of the Chancellor of the Exchequer’s annual budgets, little attention has been paid to the gender aspects of the taxation system. In particular, there has been little debate about what effects any proposals for tax rises to pay for a 2008 stimulus package or for bailing out the banking sector are likely to have on men and women. This chapter seeks to address this gap by analysing some gender aspects of the UK personal income t...
IMF Working Papers, 2022
This paper provides an overview of the relation between tax policy and gender equality, covering labor, capital and wealth, as well as consumption taxes. It considers implicit and explicit gender biases and corrective taxation. On labor taxes, we discuss the well-established findings on female labor supply and present new empirical work on the impact of household taxation. We also analyze the impact of progressivity on pay gaps and labor supply. On capital and wealth taxation, we discuss the implications of lower effective capital income taxation on the personal income tax burden gap across genders. We show that countries with relatively low female shares of capital income and wealth also tend to tax property and inheritances particularly lightly. On consumption taxes, we cover taxes on feminine hygiene products and excise taxes, which we assess in relation to externalities and differences in consumption patterns across genders.
2009
This paper examines the gender dimensions of personal income tax (PIT) in Uganda with an eye on the possible gender biases that may be embedded in the tax system. It further addresses the issue of Uganda's achievement of substantive gender equality rather than formal equality as regards the impact of taxes from a gender perspective. This is in line with the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). The paper critically examines Uganda's tax laws that seem to have formal equality, treating all people as if they are the same and synonymous with equality of opportunity. Yet, substantive equality recognizes that people are not the same. Equal treatment may therefore not be equitable. Accordingly, the paper examines the extent to which Uganda's tax laws and practices are, through affirmative action, geared to the achievement of substantive equality or the attainment of equal outcomes. We find that PIT paid by different household earning types increases gender inequality. We also find that the income tax system only worsens gender gaps and hardly is a useful tool that could be used to close the gender gaps. This is mainly because the tax rates are applied equally to both genders without due consideration of gender inequality and household composition that is rooted in the country's social norms and history. Furthermore, we find that more women increasingly fall under taxable brackets in real terms because of the income tax brackets that are not indexed to inflation. The paper proposes how PIT could be reformed with a view to using taxation as a tool for the realization of substantive gender equality. 2 Overview of the Gendered Picture of the Economy 2.1 Personal Income Tax Acts and Gender in Historical Perspective The current Income Tax Act of Uganda came into force on July 1997 and replaced the Income Tax Decree of 1974. But both pieces of legislation have their roots in a common income tax regime, which was first introduced in Kenya by the British colonial rulers in 1937 and extended to Uganda and Tanzania in 1939.
2011
On behalf of the WBG, Jerome De Henau and Cristina Santos have produced an examination of the UK government's main changes in indirect taxes from a gender perspective. This considers changes in excise duties on alcohol, tobacco, fuel and in VAT, ...
2016
The tax and benefit system probably affects men and women differently because of the differences in living situations and behaviours that mean that men and women do not enjoy the same tax arrangements, and do not necessarily respond in the same way to changes in public policy. However, identifying the effects of a change to our tax and benefit system on the inequalities between men and women is a relatively complicated process: because men and women live and interact in the same collective fiscal entities (family or other household units), resources are often pooled, even if only partially. In order to measure the effects on an individual level of a change to the tax and benefit system, we must first investigate how resources are allocated and the tax burden is shared among the individuals of the household receiving said benefits or liable for those tax payments. We propose a methodology based on four different rules of distribution, which gives us intervals for the effect of a budg...
Fiscal Studies, 1997
This paper explores the implications of examining the effect of policy changes on individual incomes rather than household incomes. Conceptual problems arise from the treatment of collective resources and responsibilities, particularly children. These are dealt with in a manner that is transparent with the aim of establishing a practical method of analysing policy at the individual (and gender-specific) level. Two policy-related issues are examined in this framework: the impact of a minimum wage and the effect of introducing a minimum pension guarantee. In each case, the implications of choosing the individual as the income unit are examined and an analysis of the issue by gender is presented.
International Journal of Microsimulation
Parliament is the place where politicians make laws to set the policy direction of countries. Non-involvement of different voices such as gender, race and ethnicity in policy decisions may create an inequality in policy-making. Regarding gender, previous literature suggests that women and men may have different policy preferences and women give more priority to policies related to their traditional roles as care givers to children in the family. Public spending on family allowances is one of the economic policies that plays an important role in helping families for the childcare. This paper contributes to the literature by analyzing the relationship between female political representation and public spending on family allowances as well as within a perspective of critical-mass framework. Overall findings support the fact that when the fraction of female politicians is above a certain critical-mass threshold, there is a significantly different allocation of public spending on family allowances.
Springer eBooks, 2023
Authors are listed in alphabetical order. Marco Cedro authored Sect. 11.4, Sect. 11.2 is written by Eleonor Kristoffersson. Teresa Pontón Aricha wrote Sect. 11.1, Lidija Živković Sect. 11.3 and the conclusion is authored by Teresa Pontón Aricha and Lidija Živković.
Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A (Statistics in Society), 1998
This paper uses data from the Family Expenditure Survey for ®ve selected years between 1968 and 1990 to examine trends in the income distribution in the UK, highlighting the role of women's labour force participation and earnings. The increased labour force participation of married women (especially mothers of young children in the 1980s) made a greater contribution to the decline of the`traditional' male breadwinner family than the increased number of lone parents. The lower half of the distribution of weekly earnings became increasingly dominated by women. Though women's weekly earnings remained low relative to men's, the increase in their participation meant that, over the period, an increased share of family income came from women's labour market income: in 1990 nearly a quarter of the income of families with children came from women's earnings. Women's earnings were an important factor in keeping families out of poverty. There was no trend towards increasing feminization of poverty over the sample period. Adult women were somewhat more likely to be poor than adult men were, but female-headed families were very much more likely to be in poverty, and much more dependent on state bene®ts, than male-headed families were. Women's increased role in the labour market affected those in male-headed families more than those in female-headed families. Alongside a broad tendency for women's earnings to reduce poverty and inequality, there is evidence that the female population has become more economically polarized.
Feminist Economics, 2002
2014
TGender based taxation (GBT) has been recently proposed as a promising policy in order to close the gender gap, i.e. promote gender equality and improve women’s status in the labour market and within the family. We use a microeconometric model of household labour supply in order to evaluate, with Italian data, the behavioural and welfare effects of GBT as compared to other policies based on different optimal taxation principles. The comparison is interesting because GBT, although technically correct, might face implementation difficulties not shared by other policies that in turn might produce comparable benefits. Our results support to some extent the expectations of GBT’s proponents. However, it is not an unquestionable success. GBT induces a modest increase of women’s employment, but similar effects can be attained by universal subsidies on low wages. When the policies are evaluated in terms of welfare, GBT ranks first among single women but among couples and in the whole populat...
European Journal of Social Security, 2012
The restructuring of modern capitalist welfare states is characterised by the tendency to individualise social protection. This article develops a simple and conceptually sound typology to analyse and classify these reforms and measures with regard to their effects on women's financial well-being. It distinguishes between policy measures that aim to improve women's financial situations, policies that reduce women's benefits and ‘gender neutral’ policies. For distinguishing between policies that have a positive or negative effect on women's (own) financial situation, I introduce three sets of criteria. The direct elimination of negative discriminatory constraints can work out positively for women. On the other hand, if the conditions that originally motivated the establishment of positive discrimination remain, the elimination of earlier forms of (positive) discrimination can bring unexpected hardship. Therefore, their abolition is often is phased in over quite long p...
European Journal of Political Economy, 2024
We investigate the role played by gender equality in redistributive policies through taxation and in preferences for redistribution. First, at the crosscountry level, we study how the historical roots of gender equality-i.e., the time of women's enfranchisement and the role of women in the family-are related with the level of redistribution through taxation. We find that in countries that are historically more gender equal the tax system today is more redistributive. Second, at the individual level, in order to shed light on the crosscountry evidence, we investigate whether gender equality is related with overall and/or gender-specific differences in preferences about redistribution. We find that in more gender-equal countries gender differences in redistributive preferences are significantly larger, while their average level does not vary: when gender equality is stronger, women are systematically more favorable to redistribution, whereas there are no significant changes for men. In turn, the component of gender equality driving this result is-not surprisingly-the equality of women and men within the political sphere.
Journal of Monetary Economics, 2012
Based on well-known evidence on labor supply elasticities, several authors have concluded that women should be taxed at lower rates than men. We evaluate the quantitative implications of taxing women at a lower rate than men. Relative to the current system of taxation, setting a proportional tax rate on married females equal to 4% (8%) increases output and married female labor force participation by about 3.9% (3.4%) and 6.9% (4.0%), respectively. Gender-based taxes improve welfare and are preferred by a majority of households. Nevertheless, welfare gains are higher when the U.S. tax system is replaced by a proportional, gender-neutral income tax.
2013
The UK coalition government is bound by equality duties to have regard to the impact of its policies on various groups, including women. This article investigates how far this legislative commitment is influencing debates about current welfare reforms, especially plans for 'universal credit' (a new means-tested benefit). The authors draw on findings from recent studies of within-household distribution from a gender perspective, including their own qualitative research. A major aim of this research was to facilitate more nuanced analysis of the effects of welfare reforms in terms of gender roles and relationships within the household. This article therefore examines how far findings from qualitative studies, in conjunction with the key principles they develop for assessing the gender impact of welfare reforms, can be used to examine 'universal credit'; and to what extent these influenced the UK government's proposals and analysis in the light of its commitment to equality duties.
Australian Journal of Labour Economics, 2007
Gender analyses of Australia's retirement incomes policy have consistently pointed to large inequalities in the benefits received by men and women. These findings are in accordance with feminist theory, which generally identifies how gender impacts of policy measures can arise from the fact that men and women systematically occupy different economic and social positions. This paper provides new information on the gender impacts of Australia's retirement incomes policy by examining the distributional impacts of changes in superannuation tax concessions announced in the 2006 federal budget. This information indicates that the budgetary changes provided substantial taxpayer-funded benefits to individuals who occupy the economic and social positions typically associated with men, whilst they pose additional risks to the retirement incomes of many women.
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