Environmental Sciences

The Niger Delta region of Nigeria is faced with a number of environmental problems. These problems are gas flaring, oil spillage and ecosystems pollution and result from major oil and gas activities as well as the activities of groups or individual members of the Niger Delta communities. The Niger Delta contributes massively to economic and financial development of Nigeria through oil and gas production and ecosystems services, but receives little or no tangible benefit from the oil production. In an attempt to tackle these multi-faceted environmental pollutions and problems, the Nigerian federal government established environmental regulations and institutions. In 1991, the Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR) established guideline and standards for the petroleum industry- EGASPIN to regulate the activities of the oil and gas companies in the Niger Delta. Also in 1992, the Nigerian government established an environmental regulatory framework in the form environmental impact assessment (EIA) to regulate developmental projects and to ensure sustainable development. The Nigerian Federal Ministry of Environment (FMENV) has been charged with the responsibility of enforcing, monitoring and implementing the environmental regulatory framework. Despite all these efforts, environmental pollution and non-compliance to the environmental laws in the Niger Delta persist.
This study has been undertaken to assess the state of environmental monitoring in the Niger Delta, by assessing the data deficiencies and needs that are required to be fed into environmental monitoring systems and to advice on improving the monitoring system.
This study adopts INDICAMP and Stakeholder Analysis as the methodologies to analyse the generated data. The data are generated through the methods of interviews conduction, questionnaires administration, literature review of existing work and stakeholder mapping.
The analysis of the results of this study reveals that there are host of factors militating against the effectiveness of environmental monitoring in the Niger Delta. These factors include administrative conflicts amongst the government agencies, poor funding of the agencies, poor quality of available information and poor communication of information on the state of the Niger Delta environment. And this study recommends appropriate funding of the agencies, enhancing information system for effective communication of information amongst agencies, further expanding and developing the staffs of the agencies and, last but not the least adopting a holistic framework for environmental monitoring as designed by USEPA 1992 in all the agencies, as the ways to improve environmental monitoring in the Niger Delta.
In conclusion, this study establishes that environmental monitoring in the Niger Delta currently does not have an effective communication system to disseminate information on the state of the environment to the necessary stakeholders. The environmental monitoring system does not have a specific and comprehensive mode of operation and adopts uncoordinated standards for regulating the operations of the oil and gas companies, and there is data deficiency for environmental monitoring.

Gas flaring practices started since the first discovery of oil in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria,
and this practice has continued without seizure. Gas flaring has been associated with many socioeconomic,
political and health implication in Nigeria, especially the Niger Delta region.
Moreover, the Niger Delta region of Nigerian is known for its abundance resources endowment
and multi-ethnic diversity enrichment, and it is the second largest wetland in the world with
mangrove swamps and fertile alluvial plain which is one of the resourceful plain in the world.
The region is however known for restiveness, violence, poverty and arms conflict and all sorts of
environmental atrocities and crime. Nigeria is currently one of the largest gas flarers in the world
and this has contributed enormously to the alteration of the climate condition of earth systemclimate
change and global warming. Being aware with what is happening and the negative
impacts of flaring gas in the region, the Nigerian government instituted many legal framework
and institutions to ensure that this practice is put to an end. This practice of gas flaring still
continues irrespective of the orchestrated laws and intuitions put in place in the oil rich region of
Nigeria. So the objective of this research study is to find out what are the factors hindering the
realisation of the aims of the various laws with respect to gas flaring in the Niger Delta. It is
identified that there are many factors affecting the effectiveness of these laws and the superb
functioning of the agencies. Some of the factors identified are: lack of management framework;
societal composition; low financial incentives; lack of human resources reserved environmental
groups; insufficient data; and the influence of Multinational Corporation etc. This work also
explored other efforts apart from enactment of laws that Nigerian government has been
embarking on to ensure the end of gas flaring practice in the region, and also other stakeholders
who are involved in this environmental discourse were explored. Nevertheless this research
shades light on the alternative approaches to end the gas flaring practice- clean development
mechanism (CDM) and reducing emission from deforestation and forests degradation (REDD). It
is found out in this study that the primary causes of the ineffectiveness of environmental laws to
end gas flaring are the lack of governmental political will and so many competing claims in the
region and its resources.

The paper recognizes Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) as contributing resources for improving livelihoods of the rural people. Existing trend of NTFPs in Rolpa district reveals high level of its potentiality where a single Malagiri tree in the one of the VDCs of the district has yielded profit of 15, 000 NRs. in gross. The study supports idea that the quality of life can be secured through the promotion of NTFPs as an additional resource for safety net. Major outlet clusters for NTFP trade and marketing of the Rolpa district are Sulichaur and Holeri regions where mostly NTFP species were found to be traded. Malagiri, Timur, Ritha and Allo are major local species that have a high level of demand in the market. As a result, people have started cultivating a few species in their farmland too. Lack of knowledge and skill in the production of standard commodity has compelled district people towards traditional NTFP farming approach where they are not reaping optimum benefit. Realizing the potential of NTFPs in the district, it is important to consider modernizing the processing of raw material, development of transportation network and undertake facility for the producers. Such intervention could be a major breakthrough in the poverty reduction of the district and securing quality of life.

The leasehold forestry is being executed in 22 districts. The forest land is allocated or handed over to a group as an endowment with entitlement for a 40-year period to create livelihood opportunities. The experiences may contribute in obtaining a better insight into the implications and operational significance of the concept through pro-poor leasehold forestry to several proactive institutions. This paper describes the temporal changes in impacts of leasehold forestry. The positive results are: (a) building synergetic efforts for physical infrastructure development towards resource mobilization and entrepreneurship development through social cohesion force, (b) rehabilitating two thirds of the degraded forests land into forested vegetation cover, (c) vast improving in women's and poor people's access rights to resources including higher level of representation of dalits and women in decision making process, and (d) mobilizing more than two thirds ( 69 per cent ) of the community fund including savings by the ultra poor through saving credit mobilization. The success cases have revealed more support in entrepreneurship development is still necessary for transformation of tangible livelihood behavior. However, the interface between environmental conservation and poverty alleviation should make more compatible and commensurable position for the diversified positive outputs and impacts in poverty alleviation. 

Key words: Leasehold, social mobilization, degraded land, financial mobilization, environmental impact

Abstract

Orchids are perennial, epiphytic, terrestrial or lithophytic herbs with roots having multilayered spongy tissues. In Nepal, 363 species of orchids are organized into 97 genera. Orchids fall under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Appendix II but do not fall under the legal protection of any existing national legislation. Habitat loss, forest destruction and degradation and over-exploitation have posed threats to the conservation of orchids in Nepal. The current study aims to document the orchids and estimate the stock of Dendrobium denudans and Dendrobium eriiflorum in a few potential locations of Rolpa district. A total of 36 species were documented in the surveyed 17 Village Development Committees (VDCs). Among them, 31 species were identified up to species level, two species up to generic level and the remaining three were unidentifed. The total stock of D. denudans was highest in Uwa VDC with 11018.08 kg followed by Seram VDC with the stock of 9982.57 kg. Similarly, D. eriiflorum stock in Seram, Siuri and Jaimakasala VDCs were 22750.01 kg, 7039.67 kg and 4933.46 kg, respectively. This study recommends a systematic research on the propagation technique; complete indexing of orchids; and inclusion of orchids in the Red Data Book on the threatened and endangered species. Orchid reserves in orchid hotspots should be established for the preservation and promotion of regeneration activities. The rare and endangered species should be preserved in botanic gardens. In addition to scientific attempts, the country should launch and implement a very firm regulation for their protection.

Key words: Orchids; Dendrobium denudans; Dendrobium eriiflorum; distribution; conservation; Rolpa district

Forest Entitlement and Benefit Sharing in Community Forests in Nepal
(Lessons from two cases of community forests of Nepal)

Pashupati Nath Koirala1 and K.F.Wiersum2

1. Department of Forests, Babarmahal, Kathmandu; E-mail: [email protected]
2. Wageningen University, The Netherlands; [email protected]

ABSTRACT: The aim of this research is to gain insight and explore the relationship of forest benefits and their distribution mechanism among users by evaluating existing institutional arrangements in the community forestry (CF). Although, the community forestry in Nepal has been regarded as a Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) approach, it has been facing many challenges in benefit sharing and resource allocation process among forest dependent users and stakeholders. The forest entitlement approach has been used for in-depth understanding of the entitlement of users. An in-depth explorative approach of case studies had been used as a research strategy. Two community forests were purposively selected in Makawanpur District in the central Nepal. A trend over seventeen years' of timber distribution among users shows more or less a similar trend among rich, mid-wealthier, and poor category users. In this case, the marginalisation of poor and minorities users may not be benefited in forthcoming period too. Moreover, the livelihood resources from the forests have not impacted on livelihood improvement of the poor and minorities. The challenge remains how to share the benefit on the basis of equity among users without antagonising the community sections with sustainable forest management principles. This research recommends studying gaps among different stakeholders in understanding of the differentiated role of forests products in livelihood of poor and well being user and developing new distribution mechanism and access of all levels of users in all created sub-entitlement.

Degraded forest management through leasehold forestry for poverty alleviation in Nepal
(Experiences from Leasehold Forestry and Livestock Programme)

Abstract

The leasehold forestry is executing in 22 districts. The forestland is allocated or handed over to a group as an endowment with entitlement for a 40-year period to create livelihood opportunities.  Leasehold Forest User Groups (LFUG) institutionalizes access to decision-making process, for forest products. These accesses are depicted into the rules and regulation through a provision to collect forest products, to distribute, and to make decisions.  A household has received about 0.52 ha forestland from the government.  The experiences contribute in obtaining a better insight into the implications and operational significance of the concept through pro-poor leasehold forestry to several proactive institutions.  Ten per cent sampling intensity was used among 3439 groups and interviews were organized with stratified random sampling method.  This paper describes the temporal changes in impacts of leasehold forestry. The major positive results are rehabilitating two thirds of the degraded forests land into forested vegetation cover and improving in women's and poor people's access rights to resources including higher level of representation of dalits and women in decision-making process. Similarly, the saving fund mobilized more than 76 per cent for income generation and productive sector investment. The goatherd size has increased from average of 3 to 5 goats/household within a two-year period. The success cases have revealed more support in entrepreneurship development is still necessary for transformation of tangible livelihood behaviour. However, the interface between environmental conservation and poverty alleviation should make more compatible and commensurable position for the diversified positive outputs and impacts in poverty alleviation.

The leasehold forestry is executing in 22 districts. The forestland is allocated or handed over to a group as an endowment with entitlement for a 40-year period to create livelihood opportunities. Leasehold Forest User Groups (LFUG) institutionalizes access to decision-making process, for forest products. These accesses are depicted into the rules and regulation through a provision to collect forest products, to distribute, and to make decisions. A household has received about 0.52 ha forestland from the government. The experiences contribute in obtaining a better insight into the implications and operational significance of the concept through pro-poor leasehold forestry to several proactive institutions. Ten per cent sampling intensity was used among 3439 groups and interviews were organized with stratified random sampling method. This paper describes the temporal changes in impacts of leasehold forestry. The major positive results are rehabilitating two thirds of the degraded forests land into forested vegetation cover and improving in women's and poor people's access rights to resources including higher level of representation of dalits and women in decision-making process. Similarly, the saving fund mobilized more than 76 per cent for income generation and productive sector investment. The goatherd size has increased from average of 3 to 5 goats/household within a two-year period. The success cases have revealed more support in entrepreneurship development is still necessary for transformation of tangible livelihood behaviour. However, the interface between environmental conservation and poverty alleviation should make more compatible and commensurable position for the diversified positive outputs and impacts in poverty alleviation.

easehold forestry is a category of the national forest in Nepal. Its aim, particularly leasehold forestry, is to support disadvantaged people through creating livelihood opportunities by forestry and livestock interaction. For this, the degraded forest is leased to a group of disadvantaged households for their exclusive use. The leasehold members get an endowment for access rights with a 40-year lease deed contract with District Forest Office. After that, the lease group acquires an entitlement for resource use through an operational plan and a constitution. The assigned District Forest Officer approves the plan. After approval of the plan, the group is assigned legal rights for management of the forest and themselves.

fem] bf/L jg Joj:yfkg sfof{ GjogM Ps ;ldIff kz' klt gfy sf] O/fnf jg Joj:Yffkg clws[ t jg ljefu, aa/dxn, sf7df8f} @)!# ;] K6] Da/ tbg' ;f/ @)&) cflZjg != k[ i7e" dL g] kfnsf] t/fOsf] jg Joj:yfkgsf] r' gf} ltx?df jgsf] Joj:yfkg j} 1flgs tl/sfn] s;/L ug] { eGg] xf] . t/fOsf] jg g} o:tf] jg xf] sL h;n] g] kfnsf] ;a} If] qsf jfl;Gbfsf] dfu cfk" lt{ sf] nflu of] ubfg lbgsf] nflu of] Uo dflGfG5 . ljz] if u/L ;dy/ tyf pTkfbgsf] b[ li6sf] 0faf6 klg of] If] qsf] jgnfO{ gljs/0fLo ;| f] tsf] ?kdf ljsf; ug{ ;lsg] ;+ efjgf lgs} /x] sf] 5 . t/fOsf] jgsf] sl/j cfwf efunfO pTkfbgsf] nflu k| of] u ug{ ;lsG5 Pj+ blIf0f Plzofs} gd" gfsf] ?kdf /x] sf] ;fn k| hfltsf] jgsf] ljsf; ug{ sf] nflu klg of] If] qsf] dxTj clt /x] sf] 5 . g] kfndf @)%) ;fnsf] bzsdf t/fOsf] jg Joj:yfkgsf] nflu jg sfo{ of] hgfx? -Operational forest mangement plan_ tof/ ug] { sfo{ ul/of] t/ oL sfo{ of] hgfx? sfof{ Gjogsf] lznlznfdf s] xL sfdx? h:t} emf8L ;kmf ug] { , sDkf6{ d] G6x? agfpg] , clUg kyx? agfpg] cflb sfo{ x? ePsf lyP . t/ klg j} 1flgs ?kdf jg ;+ jw{ gsf] sfo{ x? x' g ;s] sf] lyPg .

Forest fires are more common in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region during windy summer season from February to May. In Nepal, uncontrolled forest fire is increasing every year. The wildfires in mountain ecosystems are a major driver for destruction of pristine biodiversity, forests, ecosystem properties, and deterioration of social and economic conditions in some land-use systems and natural vegetation types. “Atmospheric Brown Clouds” (ABC) are consequences of socioeconomic changes, an expression of escalating air pollution and a major driver of regional climate change.To address this issue in Nepal, a study proposed to explore the problems and options in the country. A number of case studies were conducted for a trend analysis through participatory approach and fire occurrences index. In 2009, 46 people died due to forest fire including 14 millitaries and many Community Forest User Groups (CFUGs) member and firefighting crew were injured. More than 60 per cent fires occurs in the April and about 80 per cent fires in the March and April. In 2014, a fire broke out in a jungle, in a remote community, killed five persons and left 9 people injured. There was also a deceased five-year-old child. The forest fire has been an issue to address through proper preparedness and managing during fire alarm situation every year. More than 30% forest of Nepal are being managed by Communities. An Initiation to manage forest fire through communities at lower level has been appreciated positively. Occurrences of forest fire inside community managed forests have been reduced dramatically through community mobilization and equipment support in Terai foothills. The fourteen Volunteer Fire Management Groups (VFMG) have been supporting to suppress and aware the forest fire reduction and management including their communities. A promising results has been visualized through about more than 70 percent forest fire risk reduction by this approach.

Land degradation is being a common phenomenon in foothills during monsoon period. The period from June to August would often affect through cutting stream edge, entering torrent floods into fertile arable field and displaces shelter houses making vulnerable to the poorest people. A case was selected to explore the issue and recommend further intervention to support their livelihood. The participatory monitoring and timeline were used to assess the real situation of the community and the land along the streams. Such damages used to occur since several years in a few deprived community inhabitants of a sub-watershed (500 ha) of Chaudhar stream in Kanchanpur district. The activities was scouring the bank and supporting the torrent and flash floods into their land during rainy season. After repeated events, the community groups, major headed by female and disadvantaged family, began uniting together to oppose the haphazard collection of boulders and sand from the stream bank. The victims opposed to collect the materials. The local government could not succeed to stop it. Meantime, they started opposing on the stream field to ban the tractors transporting the materials sitting and sleeping on the way to the stream bank. The women leaders were the key figure to oppose and ultimately they could ban the collection of stream materials. The local group formed Community Development Group and started conserving the flooded plains through prohibition in grazing. The prohibition resulted sprouting of local pioneer plant species on the conserved land and after two years the group earned provisional and regulatory benefits. To conclude, the movement may get success only through awareness and self-motivation. The affect to livelihoods created people resistive against livelihood damages. The study recommends forming self-managed institutional group for sustainable management of vulnerable lands through convergence of modern environmental techniques and social coherence at local level.