Entomology

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / a g s y innovation system approach to such change. We describe the concrete experience with IP in the Sub-Sahara Challenge Program (SSA-CP) and in the Convergence of Sciences: Strengthening Innovation Systems (CoS-SIS) Program. The former has demonstrated proof of concept. The latter is designed to trace causal mechanisms. We describe its institutional experimentation and research methodology, including causal process tracing.

The legume pod borer Maruca vitrata Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) is a serious pest of cowpea in West-Africa. The parasitoid Apanteles taragamae Viereck (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) that originates from Taiwan is a potential candidate for biological control of M. vitrata. We investigated under laboratory conditions the functional response of the parasitoid by offering each experienced female 10, 20, 30 and 40 larvae of M. vitrata. We studied the influence of different host larval ages on the development, longevity, sex ratio, lifetime fecundity and parasitization rate of the wasp. In a comparative study, we also investigated the life history of A. taragamae and M. vitrata at different temperatures in the range of 20-30°C. The parasitoid successfully parasitized two-and three-day-old host larvae (first and second instars). Younger larvae (one-day-old) were parasitized to a lesser extent, and only males developed in them. Older larvae were not parasitized, partly because of defensive host behaviour. The success of parasitization was positively correlated with the density of two-day-old M. vitrata larvae. Parasitoid developmental time and longevity decreased with increasing temperature. The intrinsic rate of population increase (r m ) exhibited an optimum curve with a maximum at 24-28°C. For the host M. vitrata, r m was maximal at temperatures of 26-30°C. The data are discussed in the context of the potential of A. taragamae for biological control of M. vitrata.

Please cite this article in press as: van Broekhoven, S., et al. Growth performance and feed conversion efficiency of three edible mealworm species (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) on diets composed of organic by-products Q1 . Journal of Insect Physiology (2015), http://dx.Please cite this article in press as: van Broekhoven, S., et al. Growth performance and feed conversion efficiency of three edible mealworm species (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) on diets composed of organic by-products Q1 . Journal of Insect Physiology (2015), http://dx.Please cite this article in press as: van Broekhoven, S., et al. Growth performance and feed conversion efficiency of three edible mealworm species (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) on diets composed of organic by-products Q1 . Journal of Insect Physiology (2015), http://dx.Please cite this article in press as: van Broekhoven, S., et al. Growth performance and feed conversion efficiency of three edible mealworm species (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) on diets composed of organic by-products Q1 . Journal of Insect Physiology (2015), http://dx.Please cite this article in press as: van Broekhoven, S., et al. Growth performance and feed conversion efficiency of three edible mealworm species (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) on diets composed of organic by-products Q1 . Journal of Insect Physiology (2015), http://dx.Please cite this article in press as: van Broekhoven, S., et al. Growth performance and feed conversion efficiency of three edible mealworm species (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) on diets composed of organic by-products Q1 . Journal of Insect Physiology (2015), http://dx.Please cite this article in press as: van Broekhoven, S., et al. Growth performance and feed conversion efficiency of three edible mealworm species (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) on diets composed of organic by-products Q1 . Journal of Insect Physiology (2015), http://dx.Please cite this article in press as: van Broekhoven, S., et al. Growth performance and feed conversion efficiency of three edible mealworm species (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) on diets composed of organic by-products Q1 . Journal of Insect Physiology (2015), http://dx.

The stored-product bruchid pests, Callosobruchus maculatus (Fabricius) and Bruchidius atrolineatus (Pic) cause considerable production losses in cowpea in West Africa. Uscana lariophaga Steffan parasitizes the eggs of the bruchids both in the field and in storage. As chemical control of bruchids in traditional granaries is not appropriate for poor farmers, enhancement of the efficacy of the parasitoid by environmental manipulation has been investigated. The effect of temperature on the capacity of U. lariophaga to parasitize eggs has been studied at eleven constant and three fluctuating temperatures within the range 10 to 45 ~ Longevity of the female wasp decreased with increasing temperature. The rate of development increased linearly at temperatures from 17.5 to 35 ~ but decreased from 35 to 40 ~ Mortality of the developing wasp remained below 20~o from 20 to 37.5 ~ but outside this range, mortality reached 100~o at 15 and at 42.5 ~ Most parasitization occurred at temperatures of 25 and 30 ~ Sex ratio (percentage females) increased with temperature in the high temperature range. The intrinsic rate of increase (rm) for U. lariophaga was highest in the temperature range from 30 to 37.5 ~ and was higher than that of C. maculatus at all temperatures. While the r m value of C. maculatus did not vary much at temperatures from 25 to 35 ~ C, the r m value of the wasp doubled. Relative humidity did not effect longevity, egg-laying capacity, mortality, development time and sex ratio of the wasps with C. maculatus as host. However, with B. atrolineatus as the host, development time and mortality increased at lower relative humidity levels. The results indicate that temperature is the major regulating factor on the parasitoid. As the type of storage structure and its location (sun or shade) affects the temperature inside the store, ways are being investigated of manipulating the storage environment through temperature regulation to increase the impact of the parasitoid.

Solitarious desert locusts, Schistocerca gregaria (Forskål) (Orthoptera: Acrididae), inhabit the central, arid, and semi-arid parts of the species' invasion area in Africa, the Middle East, and SouthWest Asia. Their annual migration circuit takes them downwind to breed sequentially where winter, spring, and summer rains fall. In many years, sparse and erratic seasonal rains support phase change and local outbreaks at only a few sites. Less frequently, seasonal rains are widespread, frequent, heavy, and long lasting, and many contemporaneous outbreaks occur. When such seasonal rains fall sequentially, populations develop into an upsurge and eventually into a plague unless checked by drought, migration to hostile habitats, or effective control. Increases in the proportion of gregarious populations as the plague develops alter the effectiveness of control. As an upsurge starts, only a minority of locusts is aggregated into treatable targets and spraying them leaves sufficient unsprayed individuals to continue the upsurge. Spraying all individuals scattered within an entire infested zone is arguably both financially and environmentally unacceptable. More of the population gregarizes and forms sprayable targets after each successive season of good rains and successful breeding. Eventually, unless the rains fail, the entire upsurge population becomes aggregated at high densities so that the infested area diminishes and a plague begins. These populations must continue to increase numerically and spread geographically to achieve peak plague levels, a stage last reached in the 1950s. Effective control, aided by poor rains, accompanied each subsequent late upsurge and early plague stage and all declined rapidly. The control strategy aims to reduce populations to prevent plagues and damage to crops and grazing. Differing opinions on the optimum stage to interrupt pre-plague breeding sequences are reviewed.

Introduction: In October 2015, the Cluster of Excellence Image Knowledge Gestaltung. An Interdisciplinary Laboratory at Humboldt Universität zu Berlin staged a symposium entitled Science meets Comics. Academics from various disciplines converged along with artists from all over the world in order to discuss the future of global nutrition – and the medium of the comic strip as a communication tool for the complex issues in this  field. The open two-day symposium was followed by a closed, three-day workshop wherein the artists and cluster members took up the issues raised at the symposium and worked on possible directions for the future.
How did this somewhat unusual meeting come about? To answer this question, we must look back to 2013 and the inception of the cluster. The Cluster of Excellence assembled 25 different research disciplines from the areas of Gestaltung and science – natural, cultural, and social as well as the humanities. This combination of disciplines allows relationships to germinate that would unfold in new perspectives on the objects and processes of our times. The laboratory created a forum for academic work that previous rigid disciplinary limits and institutional barriers had precluded; until then, universities were, for the most part, organised in disciplinary departments and faculties. The aim of the cluster was, and is, to discover possible synergies through new collaborative methods and interlinked interdisciplinary (i.e. not simply multidisciplinary) research approaches; it aims to unearth their potential and consolidate knowledge gains with the help of the subjects more readily associated with Gestaltung.
One of the cluster base projects, The Anthropocene Kitchen: A laboratory connecting home and world, was part of the Interdisciplinary Laboratory. We (the editors, together with other project scientists) investigated the kitchen as an in influential locus for the exchange of energy in the 'Anthropocene' age – our current geological era, the era of humankind. Our focus was the kitchen as one of the most energy- and resource-intensive loci, the terminal of a global production chain and logistics systems, through whose daily practices – native or general – the Anthropocene takes shape. Two levels of observation and measurement were involved and interlinked: on the one hand, the cultural level of preparing and eating food; on the other, the level of natural science, where resources, energy, and material  ows are itemised on the balance sheet. The overriding aim was to highlight the fact that the Gestaltung of everyday life itself requires the contemporisation of global chains of effect which involve individual actions and a consideration of outsourcing practices that have persisted until now. The topic of food, which a ects everyone in equal measure, is a perfect candidate in this endeavour.
Ten experts from the  fields of geology, biology, geo-ecology, architecture, design, and geo-informatics worked on the base project, concentrating on themes that had augmented over the years and setting out to  find solutions for the future of the global food supply. A conscious decision was taken to select diverse forms of publication.
Our group, with a focus on global resource  ows and a working title of 'Welt' (world), decided to take the comic as a communicative medium of Gestaltung. The possibilities it provided for combining word and image gave us the necessary means to represent complex contexts in a visual and appealing way, without having to simplify things. The use of narrative and personalisation can moreover convey factual information along diverse channels of perception. The embedding of facts within a narrative seems more than necessary, particularly at a time frequently described as 'post-factual'. This interlacing is especially evident in the cultural and artistic diversity of the comic which was implemented by 12 international graphic artists. A further emotional level of meaning transpired through this project, which could not have been carried by words alone.
However, the production of a factual comic strip has one more objective, as yet too seldom countenanced: In order to make social dynamics and processes apprehensible and researchable in a societal context, one needs to remove the distinction between 'producing scientific knowledge' and the 'communication of science'. These two areas are particularly closely linked in the  field of food and nutrition by acquired know-how, itself strongly influenced by culture. The narrative of each chapter was developed from interviews with people from ten different countries on the subjects of food habits and eating cultures. We took this dialogue-driven 'co-design' as a basis for generating the subsequent scientific research need. We did not attempt to formulate hypotheses in advance, in order to then seek empirical backing through interviews; instead, we let our research be directed by the protagonists' answers. Consequently, some unexpected re-combinations, linkages, and new evaluations in our scientific work arose out of that process.
In order to attain the necessary transdisciplinarity, particularly the involvement of society and thus the fusion of knowledge generation and transfer, we deliberately kept the development of the storyboard relatively open, having  first defined a few conditions to the structural framework. This required the theme of nutrition be discussed and tested against potential and possibly expandable options for the future, focusing on three main elements: 1) materials  ows (local, regional, and global), 2) infrastructures (transport routes, markets, the home, and especially, the kitchen), and 3) the greatest possible diversity of cultural contexts. This was presented by means of a 'journey' through various countries. We did not address the three elements in a standard progression but adapted them to the storyboard as drafted together with the protagonists. This was because many aspects crystallised only after an intensive exchange of ideas.
The main part of the comic provide an outline – one might also say an exemplary mapping of the food behaviours in today's Anthropocene era – and thus of the cultural preferences of the protagonists and the resulting outcomes for local, regional and global environments, and the entire earth system. The last chapter on the future of global nutrition was, as mentioned above, undertaken by all the artists involved in the book at the workshop (read more about the content of the book in the epilogue on page 111-117).
This much on the background. Now, to return to the symposium, which the present volume seeks to document. The  first day of the symposium was dedicated to comics studies. Following the welcome speech by Reinhold Leinfelder, Principal Investigator for the project, comics studies scholar Jaqueline Berndt, back then still at Kyoto Seika University, surveyed science manga with a special focus on nutrition and food safety after the Triple Disaster of Fukushima on 11 March 2011. Nick Sousanis, assistant professor of the School of Humanities and Liberal Studies at San Francisco State University, US, who published his doctoral thesis entirely in comics, spoke about the educational potential inherent in the interweaving of image and text. Science journalist Lukas Plank from Vienna invited people to discuss whether scienti c cartoon strips should be subjected to rules and guidelines in order to make sources and facts more transparent. Stephan Packard, a researcher into media culture at Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg and President of the German Society for Comics Studies (ComFor), developed this theme further by asking "How factual are factual comics?". This was followed by a presentation by illustrator Veronika Mischitz and Henning Krause, of the Helmholtz Society's science communication department, of excerpts of their monthly web cartoon strip Klar soweit? (Savvy?). Finally, Reinhold Leinfelder explained the background for the Eating Anthropocene comic as a format for intercultural, cross-discipline, and participative communication.
The second day was dedicated to the subject of nutrition. It was introduced by Arnold van Huis, Emeritus Professor at Wageningen University, Netherlands, a leading expert on insects as animal feed and human food. He expounded the potential of insects as an alternative source of animal protein, both for human consumption and for feeding animals. Cultural scientist Katerina Teaiwa of the Australian National University in Canberra joined the symposium by Skype and talked about the environmental effects of phosphate mining on Banaba, a tiny island in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. She also discussed the social and political effects of mining on the population of Banaba in order to provide for rich harvests in the agricultural  fields of Australia and New Zealand. Anne-Kathrin Kuhlemann, Managing Partner of BE Solutions & Blue Systems Design GmbH, spoke about the economic chances of sustainable and modern cycles of food production speci cally in urban settings, citing as an example TopFarmers in Berlin.
The agricultural and nutritional scientist Toni Meier of the Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Germany, provided the audience with a lot of theoretical and practical input at the 'Lunchtalk' with reference to the environmental footprint of various foods and diets. This was accompanied by a chickpea stew – a dish with a very tiny ecological footprint. As dessert we served a bee sting cake with drone larvae, made to a recipe featured in the comic.
This volume of symposium proceedings contains contributions from all the participants in a variety of formats including essays, lectures, comics, and an interview. We hope that this blend will foster the promising cooperation between science and the humanities by using the medium comic.
Reinhold Leinfelder, Alexandra Hamann, Jens Kirstein, Marc Schleunitz, Theresa Habermann

Background: The number of termite species in the world is more than 2500, and Africa with more than 1000 species has the richest intercontinental diversity. The family Termitidae contains builders of great mounds up to 5 m high. Colonies are composed of casts: a queen, a king, soldiers and workers. Some species of termite cultivate specialised fungi to digest cellulose. Termites constitute 10% of all animal biomass in the tropics. The purpose of the study was to make an overview of how termites are utilized, perceived and experienced in daily life across sub-Saharan Africa.

In order to achieve global food security for the increasing world population and the consequently increasing demand in meat, alternative protein sources are required. Insects possess specific characteristics that are suitable to replace conventional protein sources such as soybean, rapeseed meal and fish meal, enabling insect rearing as a potential solution. Although there is a substantial amount of literature on the protein quality of several insect species, the fit with the livestock protein requirements is studied to a limited extent. This project was aimed to analyze various insect species that are capable of being reared on large scale by examining the compatibility of their amino acid profiles to the requirements of multiple types of animal feed. The current legislation on the mass rearing of insects was also researched. Evaluating housing, amino acid profile, possible health issues and substrates of 18 insect species, 3 of which in different developmental stages, of the orders Blattodea (5), Coleoptera (4), Diptera (3), Lepidoptera (2) and Orthoptera (4). Overall, the amount of crude protein in insect meal and in particular the amount of the most limiting amino acid, lysine, is higher compared to that in soybean meal and lower compared to fish meal. Different substrates influence the amino acid composition of these organisms. As a side research the same analysis was conducted for 7 earthworm species. With the exception of aquaculture, the use of insect proteins in animal feed is not allowed in Europe, whereas in African countries or in China there are no prohibiting regulations. In this paper communication methods used by the major players in the insect industry are included alongside with future prospects of large scale use of insect products as animal feed.