The Ingombe Ilede and Isamu Pati Iron Age sites in Zambia provide 47 human burials for analyses. ... more The Ingombe Ilede and Isamu Pati Iron Age sites in Zambia provide 47 human burials for analyses. Our new study provides demographic information (sex and age), evidence of trauma, infectious diseases as well as physiological and mechanical indicators of stress. We found a high mortality rate for infants and children. Most of the sample (65%) lacked indications of stress or infectious diseases, but a few had cribra orbitalia, osteoarthritis, osteophytosis and various dental pathologies. These conditions are known to be caused by diet, food processing, nutritional intake and cultural systems. In addition, there were low levels of degenerative joint disease and no evidence of trauma. The stature and body mass estimates show that these Iron Age people were similar in size and shape compared with contemporary South Africans. These data indicate a relatively healthy population with a well-balanced diet and low afflictions of infectious and parasitic diseases.
ABSTRAcT Archaeo-metallurgical research in the Tswapong Hills of southeastern Botswana has yielde... more ABSTRAcT Archaeo-metallurgical research in the Tswapong Hills of southeastern Botswana has yielded evidence for two smelting traditions. Forced draft furnaces were made by Happy Rest and Diamant communities (Kalundu TradiTion), while Zhizo communities (Nkope Branch of urewe) used natural draft furnaces. The ores were similar, so the difference was most likely cultural. During smelting operations, the people stayed in temporary villages, such as Makodu, constructed for that purpose.
"WE DEMONSTRATE THAT UNDER CERTAIN conditions vitrified dung as well as
other biomass-derived ag... more "WE DEMONSTRATE THAT UNDER CERTAIN conditions vitrified dung as well as
other biomass-derived aggregates can occur at archaeological sites throughout southern Africa. Recommendations are made about the terminology used to describe these aggregates."
Renewed excavations at Broederstroom uncovered evidence for the spatial organization known as the... more Renewed excavations at Broederstroom uncovered evidence for the spatial organization known as the Central Cattle Pattern..
A pilot study used eleven excavated sites in the Limpopo Province of South Africa to test the app... more A pilot study used eleven excavated sites in the Limpopo Province of South Africa to test the application of OSL dating for Iron Age ceramic shards. The culture-history sequences of Iron Age is well established by pottery style and the sites had already been radiocarbon dated. Because the excavations were part of various research projects, rather than a specific OSL study, the sites have been destroyed and hence, local environmental radioactivity was unknown. To reconstruct the environmental dose rate, we used data from three sources: (1), a worldwide survey, (2), radionuclides in the pottery and (3) recent geological surveys. The geological surveys yielded the most dates that are reasonably close to the known chronology, reproducing the correct chronological order in most cases. Some dates, however, are 200 years too recent and some standard deviations too high. To evaluate further the potential of OSL dating in Iron Age research, dosimetry data need to be collected in situ.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, a... more JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. This content downloaded from 105.225.195.175 on Fri,
The Letsibogo Dam basin incorporated over 120 Iron Age sites. Zhizo settlement, dating to between... more The Letsibogo Dam basin incorporated over 120 Iron Age sites. Zhizo settlement, dating to between AD 700 and 1000,was well represented, but the area was unoccupied for the next 400 years. The emphasis on ivory during the K2 period supports the likelihood that Letsibogo may have been part of a hunting reserve at that time. Later, the concentration of 15th century Khami settlements shows that. an entir~chiefdom occupied the region. Khami commoners arranged their settlements according to the Central Cattle Pattern, depositing household refuse around grain bins at the back. Phytoliths, charcoal, faunal remains and numerous grain bins show that the climate was favourable to agriculture. Letsibogo Moloko, that is, 15th to 17th century Sotho-Tswana people, lived in the neighbourhood at about the same time. Generally, however, Letsibogo Moloko postdates Khami in the dam basin, and interaction was limited.
The relationship between Leokwe and Leopard's Kopje people represents the first known ethnic inte... more The relationship between Leokwe and Leopard's Kopje people represents the first known ethnic interaction in precolonial southern Africa. As the subordinate partner, Leokwe had roles befitting their 'first people' status. Salvage excavations at the Leokwe Main Rest Camp uncovered 'extra' cattle kraals, while Leokwe faunal assemblages there and elsewhere contain high percentages of low-status cattle bones. Thus, Leokwe herdsmen were probably tending the cattle of K2 elite. Two sites on Schroda and one on Little Muck suggest that Leokwe people were also ritual specialists: they appear to have been involved with rites of passage and rainmaking. Evidently, the ethnic distinction of Leokwe people disappeared as Mapungubwe became a state under a sacred leader. KEy WOrdS: Ethnic interaction; Iron Age of southern Africa; Zhizo, K2 and Leokwe archaeological units.
Ritual behavior in the archaeological past is not self-evident. Understanding pre-historic ritual... more Ritual behavior in the archaeological past is not self-evident. Understanding pre-historic ritual therefore requires access to the worldview of people at the time. This is at least partially possible for pre-colonial farming societies in Southern Africa through the settlement model known as the Central Cattle Pattern. With this model we can recognize and interpret a wide variety of artifacts, features and spaces. The most important dimensions in the ritual code include a contrast between the 'wild bush' and the social order of human settlements; another contrast between front -public and back -sacred localities within a settlement; and a third contrast between heavenly forces above and the ancestral world below. The roles of ancestors provided the need for ritual spaces.
Burnt daga structures in Iron Age villages serve as proxies for severe drought on the plateau of ... more Burnt daga structures in Iron Age villages serve as proxies for severe drought on the plateau of southern Africa. The distribution of burnt daga remains in two other rainfall areas, KwaZulu-Natal and the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone over Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi, establishes a sequence of simultaneous burnings that parallels the severe droughts recorded for the interior plateau. These widespread correspondences suggest a common cause. Another correspondence with natural proxy data from South America indicates that intensive El Niño events most likely caused the droughts.
The Ingombe Ilede and Isamu Pati Iron Age sites in Zambia provide 47 human burials for analyses. ... more The Ingombe Ilede and Isamu Pati Iron Age sites in Zambia provide 47 human burials for analyses. Our new study provides demographic information (sex and age), evidence of trauma, infectious diseases as well as physiological and mechanical indicators of stress. We found a high mortality rate for infants and children. Most of the sample (65%) lacked indications of stress or infectious diseases, but a few had cribra orbitalia, osteoarthritis, osteophytosis and various dental pathologies. These conditions are known to be caused by diet, food processing, nutritional intake and cultural systems. In addition, there were low levels of degenerative joint disease and no evidence of trauma. The stature and body mass estimates show that these Iron Age people were similar in size and shape compared with contemporary South Africans. These data indicate a relatively healthy population with a well-balanced diet and low afflictions of infectious and parasitic diseases.
ABSTRAcT Archaeo-metallurgical research in the Tswapong Hills of southeastern Botswana has yielde... more ABSTRAcT Archaeo-metallurgical research in the Tswapong Hills of southeastern Botswana has yielded evidence for two smelting traditions. Forced draft furnaces were made by Happy Rest and Diamant communities (Kalundu TradiTion), while Zhizo communities (Nkope Branch of urewe) used natural draft furnaces. The ores were similar, so the difference was most likely cultural. During smelting operations, the people stayed in temporary villages, such as Makodu, constructed for that purpose.
"WE DEMONSTRATE THAT UNDER CERTAIN conditions vitrified dung as well as
other biomass-derived ag... more "WE DEMONSTRATE THAT UNDER CERTAIN conditions vitrified dung as well as
other biomass-derived aggregates can occur at archaeological sites throughout southern Africa. Recommendations are made about the terminology used to describe these aggregates."
Renewed excavations at Broederstroom uncovered evidence for the spatial organization known as the... more Renewed excavations at Broederstroom uncovered evidence for the spatial organization known as the Central Cattle Pattern..
A pilot study used eleven excavated sites in the Limpopo Province of South Africa to test the app... more A pilot study used eleven excavated sites in the Limpopo Province of South Africa to test the application of OSL dating for Iron Age ceramic shards. The culture-history sequences of Iron Age is well established by pottery style and the sites had already been radiocarbon dated. Because the excavations were part of various research projects, rather than a specific OSL study, the sites have been destroyed and hence, local environmental radioactivity was unknown. To reconstruct the environmental dose rate, we used data from three sources: (1), a worldwide survey, (2), radionuclides in the pottery and (3) recent geological surveys. The geological surveys yielded the most dates that are reasonably close to the known chronology, reproducing the correct chronological order in most cases. Some dates, however, are 200 years too recent and some standard deviations too high. To evaluate further the potential of OSL dating in Iron Age research, dosimetry data need to be collected in situ.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, a... more JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. This content downloaded from 105.225.195.175 on Fri,
The Letsibogo Dam basin incorporated over 120 Iron Age sites. Zhizo settlement, dating to between... more The Letsibogo Dam basin incorporated over 120 Iron Age sites. Zhizo settlement, dating to between AD 700 and 1000,was well represented, but the area was unoccupied for the next 400 years. The emphasis on ivory during the K2 period supports the likelihood that Letsibogo may have been part of a hunting reserve at that time. Later, the concentration of 15th century Khami settlements shows that. an entir~chiefdom occupied the region. Khami commoners arranged their settlements according to the Central Cattle Pattern, depositing household refuse around grain bins at the back. Phytoliths, charcoal, faunal remains and numerous grain bins show that the climate was favourable to agriculture. Letsibogo Moloko, that is, 15th to 17th century Sotho-Tswana people, lived in the neighbourhood at about the same time. Generally, however, Letsibogo Moloko postdates Khami in the dam basin, and interaction was limited.
The relationship between Leokwe and Leopard's Kopje people represents the first known ethnic inte... more The relationship between Leokwe and Leopard's Kopje people represents the first known ethnic interaction in precolonial southern Africa. As the subordinate partner, Leokwe had roles befitting their 'first people' status. Salvage excavations at the Leokwe Main Rest Camp uncovered 'extra' cattle kraals, while Leokwe faunal assemblages there and elsewhere contain high percentages of low-status cattle bones. Thus, Leokwe herdsmen were probably tending the cattle of K2 elite. Two sites on Schroda and one on Little Muck suggest that Leokwe people were also ritual specialists: they appear to have been involved with rites of passage and rainmaking. Evidently, the ethnic distinction of Leokwe people disappeared as Mapungubwe became a state under a sacred leader. KEy WOrdS: Ethnic interaction; Iron Age of southern Africa; Zhizo, K2 and Leokwe archaeological units.
Ritual behavior in the archaeological past is not self-evident. Understanding pre-historic ritual... more Ritual behavior in the archaeological past is not self-evident. Understanding pre-historic ritual therefore requires access to the worldview of people at the time. This is at least partially possible for pre-colonial farming societies in Southern Africa through the settlement model known as the Central Cattle Pattern. With this model we can recognize and interpret a wide variety of artifacts, features and spaces. The most important dimensions in the ritual code include a contrast between the 'wild bush' and the social order of human settlements; another contrast between front -public and back -sacred localities within a settlement; and a third contrast between heavenly forces above and the ancestral world below. The roles of ancestors provided the need for ritual spaces.
Burnt daga structures in Iron Age villages serve as proxies for severe drought on the plateau of ... more Burnt daga structures in Iron Age villages serve as proxies for severe drought on the plateau of southern Africa. The distribution of burnt daga remains in two other rainfall areas, KwaZulu-Natal and the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone over Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi, establishes a sequence of simultaneous burnings that parallels the severe droughts recorded for the interior plateau. These widespread correspondences suggest a common cause. Another correspondence with natural proxy data from South America indicates that intensive El Niño events most likely caused the droughts.
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Papers by Tom Huffman
other biomass-derived aggregates can occur at archaeological sites throughout southern Africa. Recommendations are made about the terminology used to describe these aggregates."
other biomass-derived aggregates can occur at archaeological sites throughout southern Africa. Recommendations are made about the terminology used to describe these aggregates."