purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the influences on special education teachers ’ d... more purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the influences on special education teachers ’ decisions about literacy for their students with severe disabilities. Using multiple case study and grounded theory methodologies, four middle and high school special education teachers were purposefully selected to participate in interviews and videotaped observations. Transcripts and videos were analyzed in concert with documents such as individualized education programs and teaching materials using constant comparative analysis. Four key influences on their literacy decisions were identified: (a) beliefs about students, teaching, and learning; (b) expectations; (c) self-efficacy; and (d) the workplace context. These four components form the basis for a preliminary theory of teacher decision making about literacy for students with severe disabilities. ii Acknowledgments I am deeply indebted to the four teachers and eight students who participated in this study. Without their contributio...
Education and training in autism and developmental disabilities, 2017
Learning in general education contexts enhances access to general curriculum content for students... more Learning in general education contexts enhances access to general curriculum content for students with disabilities. However, few intervention studies focused on general education content have been conducted in general education settings. The current study provides preliminary evidence of the effectiveness of a literacy intervention using evidence-based practices (i.e., shared reading, embedded instruction, time delay) implemented in the context of a ninth-grade general education English/language arts class. A multiple baselines across conditions design was used to examine the effectiveness of the intervention, and field notes were collected to examine the factors that facilitated and inhibited the integration of the intervention into the general education class routines. Implications are discussed in relationship to future research focusing on interventions to improve access to the general curriculum in general education contexts, as well as for teachers providing such instruction....
Research conducted in collaboration with practitioners has the potential to transform the relatio... more Research conducted in collaboration with practitioners has the potential to transform the relationship between research and practice by embedding the research process in the contexts of schools and communities. Collaborative research is well suited to improve inclusive education, because inclusive education reform is situated in local contexts. In this review, we examined research focused on inclusive education, specifically for students with disabilities, that used collaborative research methodologies. We defined collaborative research as partnerships between universityand school-based researchers to examine local issues and extend knowledge in the field. We found that the collaborative research varied widely in relation to research team membership, and team members’ roles, and research methodologies. Improving inclusive education through collaborative research will require a paradigm shift in the research community toward conceptually and empirically considering the role of social...
Individualized education program (IEP) goals are meant to be personalized to address the unique n... more Individualized education program (IEP) goals are meant to be personalized to address the unique needs of students with disabilities, while also reflecting the student's grade-aligned general education curriculum. IEP goals describe what, how, and where students with disabilities are taught, and reflect the curriculum used to provide instruction. In this study, we analyzed how IEP goals align with the different curricular philosophies for students with severe disabilities. Using a sample of 88 IEPs for students with complex support needs (i.e., severe disabilities) in Grades K-12, we found most goals (57%) reflect curricular philosophies of the 1970s-1990s (i.e., developmental, functional, and social inclusion) eras, with only 26% of IEP goals representative of modern curricular philosophies (i.e., grade-aligned academic content). We also found secondary-aged students were less likely to have grade-aligned academic goals compared to elementary-aged students. We offer implications...
Trends in the supplementary aids and services (SAS) written in individualized education programs ... more Trends in the supplementary aids and services (SAS) written in individualized education programs (IEPs) for students with significant disabilities (a) in different educational placements, (b) with and without behavior support plans (BSP), and (c) with and without complex communication needs (CCN) are examined using multivariate analysis of variance. Results show no significant differences in SAS for students across separate, resource, and inclusive placements. Students with BSPs had significantly more collaborative and behavior SAS than those without BSPs. Students with CCN had significantly more social-communication SAS than those whose IEPs indicated little to no communication support needs; however, 51.1% of students with CCN had no social-communication SAS. Findings raise concern around the extent to which SAS are considered before placement decisions, the high frequency of paraprofessional support for students with BSPs, and the low frequency of social-communication SAS written...
This study explores the intersectionality in the educational experiences of Korean American stude... more This study explores the intersectionality in the educational experiences of Korean American students with autism as they navigate the transition from high school to college. For these students, dis...
Teacher Education and Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children
Teachers can and should play a powerful active role in promoting societal inclusion and equity fo... more Teachers can and should play a powerful active role in promoting societal inclusion and equity for all learners. There is an emerging interest among teacher education scholars in teacher agency and its importance; however, a theoretical and empirical understanding of teacher agency remains elusive. The purposes of this systematic review are to synthesize existing theories of teacher agency and summarize factors enhancing or constraining teacher agency for inclusive education. Implications for teacher education, professional development, and future studies were discussed. The electronic databases Academic Search Premier, Education Research Complete, ERIC, and PsycINFO were systematically searched for articles published until January 2019. Nine empirical studies were identified to inform the three-dimensional (i.e., iterational, practical-evaluative, projective) and temporal-relational nature of teacher agency, with inclusive teacher identity, professional competence, inclusive profes...
Inclusive education is contextualised within local systems and represents a continuous struggle t... more Inclusive education is contextualised within local systems and represents a continuous struggle to ensure access to meaningful and equitable education. The purpose of this scoping review was to examine international empirical studies published in peer-reviewed journals from 1999 to 2019 focused on teacher agency for inclusive education for students with disabilities in grades K-12. The conceptual framework used for this research identified teacher agency for inclusive schooling as requiring a disruption of traditional special educator identities, particularly pertaining to segregated schooling practices and deficit notions of disability. Eleven articles met the inclusion criteria. The results revealed varied conceptualizations of how teacher agency promotes inclusive education. We identified the following themes related to teachers' agentic actions towards inclusive education: (a) instructional strategies, (b) collaboration, (c) family-school-community connections, and (d) other...
Expertise among teachers of students with extensive support needs is not well understood, and bel... more Expertise among teachers of students with extensive support needs is not well understood, and beliefs about what constitutes quality education for this population vary widely. We discuss findings from prior research on teacher preparation in relation to high-leverage practices and expertise development for students with extensive support needs within the social contexts of schools. We identify four core practices of expert teachers for students with extensive support needs, and we theorize the progression from novice to expert for each core practice using Dreyfus's (2004) model of expertise.
Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education
Background/Context Federal laws require equitable access to education for students with disabilit... more Background/Context Federal laws require equitable access to education for students with disabilities through educational placement in the least restrictive environment (LRE). However, research has determined students with significant support needs (SSN) are overrepresented in segregated educational placements. Focus of Study This study explores justifications of LRE placement decisions for students with SSN through a critical qualitative analysis. We evaluated how individualized education program (IEP) teams interpret LRE and justify placement decisions for students with SSN. Additionally, we sought to understand how the interpretation of LRE permits or restricts access to general education for students with SSN. Population Students with SSN are those who require support across multiple domains and often have disabilities in the categories of autism, intellectual disability, multiple disabilities, and deaf-blindness. Research Design We used a qualitative methodology situated in a cr...
Supplementary aids and services have been a provision in special education law since PL 94-142, h... more Supplementary aids and services have been a provision in special education law since PL 94-142, however, almost no guidance has been provided to help teams make decisions about their appropriate selection and use. In this exploratory study, we explore the types of supplementary aids and services selected for students with significant support needs using a conventional content analysis of Individual Education Program (IEPs) from 88 students in grades K-12. Results illustrate the wide variation in types of supplementary aids and services chosen for students overall. Curricular accommodations and personnel supports were the most commonly identified supports, while supports to assist students to communicate and make meaning of curriculum (e.g., curricular modifications) were less common, as were less intrusive supports such as peer assisted learning. Implications for policy, practice, and research are provided.
Decisions about literacy are influenced by assumptions about students' potential. In special educ... more Decisions about literacy are influenced by assumptions about students' potential. In special education settings, teachers sort students based on orality. Assumptions about potential are based on students' orality and behavior. Low teacher self-efficacy leads to limited literacy opportunities. a b s t r a c t Beliefs about students and pedagogical knowledge have been identified as key barriers to accessible general education content and contexts for students with significant disabilities. In this case study of a high school special education literacy class, I examine definitions of literacy, expectations about students, and self-efficacy in the process of teaching literacy to students with significant disabilities. Team members expressed disjointed understandings about the purpose of literacy, lacked pedagogical knowledge, and had poor self-efficacy. Beliefs about " high " and " low " students, defined by students' orality, affected team members' perceptions about the feasibility and priority of literacy for various groups of students.
All students with disabilities are required to access instruction related to the general curricul... more All students with disabilities are required to access instruction related to the general curriculum; however, little is known about how this instruction actually occurs for students with significant intellectual disability, who would be eligible to participate in the alternate assessment based on alternate achievement standards. In this study, we examined 112 literacy activities of eight students eligible for the alternate assessment across 48 hrs. of observation. Using a literacy observation instrument, we recorded 52 features of literacy instruction in relationship to three areas of focus: contextual features (i.e., location, instructional configuration, & others present), materials (i.e., media form, format, & genre), and content of instruction. Results indicate that the participants in this study were 10 times more likely to be exposed to academic literacy when peers without disabilities were present. In addition, instruction outside of special education settings was more likely to include a variety of literacy forms.
Perspectives on expert teaching reveal assumptions about students. Perspectives on expert teachin... more Perspectives on expert teaching reveal assumptions about students. Perspectives on expert teaching reveal assumptions about the purposes of special education. Forms of expert teaching met different functions depending on expectations. Positive narratives about teachers and students contrasted with deficit-oriented views. a b s t r a c t Teachers, school leaders, and faculty (n ¼ 32) were interviewed regarding their perceptions about the expertise of teachers of students with significant support needs. While participants agreed that expert instruction was characterized by knowledge about the student and positivity, their beliefs differed in relation to the functions of those expert skills. Findings revealed that deficit-and asset-oriented views of students were related to views about the professionalism of teachers. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to the apparent link between deficit views about students and views of special education teachers as professionals.
School administrators play an important role in shaping teaching and learning. However, very litt... more School administrators play an important role in shaping teaching and learning. However, very little is known regarding how school administrators perceive instruction for students with severe disabilities and how those perceptions shape expectations and visions for instruction. Semistructured interviews were used to interview 12 administrators responsible for evaluating teachers of students with severe disabilities across a variety of educational settings. The interviews were designed to ascertain administrators' perceptions about teachers' expertise and their ideal vision of instruction for students with severe disabilities. Findings highlight administrators' varying visions of instruction, which reveal the ways these visions might influence their expectations for teachers and students. Implications for inclusion and instructional practices are discussed.
Learning in general education contexts enhances access to general curriculum content for students... more Learning in general education contexts enhances access to general curriculum content for students with disabilities. However, few intervention studies focused on general education content have been conducted in general education settings. The current study provides preliminary evidence of the effectiveness of a literacy intervention using evidence-based practices (i.e., shared reading, embedded instruction, time delay) implemented in the context of a ninth-grade general education English/language arts class. A multiple baselines across conditions design was used to examine the effectiveness of the intervention, and field notes were collected to examine the factors that facilitated and inhibited the integration of the intervention into the general education class routines. Implications are discussed in relationship to future research focusing on interventions to improve access to the general curriculum in general education contexts, as well as for teachers providing such instruction.
purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the influences on special education teachers ’ d... more purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the influences on special education teachers ’ decisions about literacy for their students with severe disabilities. Using multiple case study and grounded theory methodologies, four middle and high school special education teachers were purposefully selected to participate in interviews and videotaped observations. Transcripts and videos were analyzed in concert with documents such as individualized education programs and teaching materials using constant comparative analysis. Four key influences on their literacy decisions were identified: (a) beliefs about students, teaching, and learning; (b) expectations; (c) self-efficacy; and (d) the workplace context. These four components form the basis for a preliminary theory of teacher decision making about literacy for students with severe disabilities. ii Acknowledgments I am deeply indebted to the four teachers and eight students who participated in this study. Without their contributio...
Education and training in autism and developmental disabilities, 2017
Learning in general education contexts enhances access to general curriculum content for students... more Learning in general education contexts enhances access to general curriculum content for students with disabilities. However, few intervention studies focused on general education content have been conducted in general education settings. The current study provides preliminary evidence of the effectiveness of a literacy intervention using evidence-based practices (i.e., shared reading, embedded instruction, time delay) implemented in the context of a ninth-grade general education English/language arts class. A multiple baselines across conditions design was used to examine the effectiveness of the intervention, and field notes were collected to examine the factors that facilitated and inhibited the integration of the intervention into the general education class routines. Implications are discussed in relationship to future research focusing on interventions to improve access to the general curriculum in general education contexts, as well as for teachers providing such instruction....
Research conducted in collaboration with practitioners has the potential to transform the relatio... more Research conducted in collaboration with practitioners has the potential to transform the relationship between research and practice by embedding the research process in the contexts of schools and communities. Collaborative research is well suited to improve inclusive education, because inclusive education reform is situated in local contexts. In this review, we examined research focused on inclusive education, specifically for students with disabilities, that used collaborative research methodologies. We defined collaborative research as partnerships between universityand school-based researchers to examine local issues and extend knowledge in the field. We found that the collaborative research varied widely in relation to research team membership, and team members’ roles, and research methodologies. Improving inclusive education through collaborative research will require a paradigm shift in the research community toward conceptually and empirically considering the role of social...
Individualized education program (IEP) goals are meant to be personalized to address the unique n... more Individualized education program (IEP) goals are meant to be personalized to address the unique needs of students with disabilities, while also reflecting the student's grade-aligned general education curriculum. IEP goals describe what, how, and where students with disabilities are taught, and reflect the curriculum used to provide instruction. In this study, we analyzed how IEP goals align with the different curricular philosophies for students with severe disabilities. Using a sample of 88 IEPs for students with complex support needs (i.e., severe disabilities) in Grades K-12, we found most goals (57%) reflect curricular philosophies of the 1970s-1990s (i.e., developmental, functional, and social inclusion) eras, with only 26% of IEP goals representative of modern curricular philosophies (i.e., grade-aligned academic content). We also found secondary-aged students were less likely to have grade-aligned academic goals compared to elementary-aged students. We offer implications...
Trends in the supplementary aids and services (SAS) written in individualized education programs ... more Trends in the supplementary aids and services (SAS) written in individualized education programs (IEPs) for students with significant disabilities (a) in different educational placements, (b) with and without behavior support plans (BSP), and (c) with and without complex communication needs (CCN) are examined using multivariate analysis of variance. Results show no significant differences in SAS for students across separate, resource, and inclusive placements. Students with BSPs had significantly more collaborative and behavior SAS than those without BSPs. Students with CCN had significantly more social-communication SAS than those whose IEPs indicated little to no communication support needs; however, 51.1% of students with CCN had no social-communication SAS. Findings raise concern around the extent to which SAS are considered before placement decisions, the high frequency of paraprofessional support for students with BSPs, and the low frequency of social-communication SAS written...
This study explores the intersectionality in the educational experiences of Korean American stude... more This study explores the intersectionality in the educational experiences of Korean American students with autism as they navigate the transition from high school to college. For these students, dis...
Teacher Education and Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children
Teachers can and should play a powerful active role in promoting societal inclusion and equity fo... more Teachers can and should play a powerful active role in promoting societal inclusion and equity for all learners. There is an emerging interest among teacher education scholars in teacher agency and its importance; however, a theoretical and empirical understanding of teacher agency remains elusive. The purposes of this systematic review are to synthesize existing theories of teacher agency and summarize factors enhancing or constraining teacher agency for inclusive education. Implications for teacher education, professional development, and future studies were discussed. The electronic databases Academic Search Premier, Education Research Complete, ERIC, and PsycINFO were systematically searched for articles published until January 2019. Nine empirical studies were identified to inform the three-dimensional (i.e., iterational, practical-evaluative, projective) and temporal-relational nature of teacher agency, with inclusive teacher identity, professional competence, inclusive profes...
Inclusive education is contextualised within local systems and represents a continuous struggle t... more Inclusive education is contextualised within local systems and represents a continuous struggle to ensure access to meaningful and equitable education. The purpose of this scoping review was to examine international empirical studies published in peer-reviewed journals from 1999 to 2019 focused on teacher agency for inclusive education for students with disabilities in grades K-12. The conceptual framework used for this research identified teacher agency for inclusive schooling as requiring a disruption of traditional special educator identities, particularly pertaining to segregated schooling practices and deficit notions of disability. Eleven articles met the inclusion criteria. The results revealed varied conceptualizations of how teacher agency promotes inclusive education. We identified the following themes related to teachers' agentic actions towards inclusive education: (a) instructional strategies, (b) collaboration, (c) family-school-community connections, and (d) other...
Expertise among teachers of students with extensive support needs is not well understood, and bel... more Expertise among teachers of students with extensive support needs is not well understood, and beliefs about what constitutes quality education for this population vary widely. We discuss findings from prior research on teacher preparation in relation to high-leverage practices and expertise development for students with extensive support needs within the social contexts of schools. We identify four core practices of expert teachers for students with extensive support needs, and we theorize the progression from novice to expert for each core practice using Dreyfus's (2004) model of expertise.
Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education
Background/Context Federal laws require equitable access to education for students with disabilit... more Background/Context Federal laws require equitable access to education for students with disabilities through educational placement in the least restrictive environment (LRE). However, research has determined students with significant support needs (SSN) are overrepresented in segregated educational placements. Focus of Study This study explores justifications of LRE placement decisions for students with SSN through a critical qualitative analysis. We evaluated how individualized education program (IEP) teams interpret LRE and justify placement decisions for students with SSN. Additionally, we sought to understand how the interpretation of LRE permits or restricts access to general education for students with SSN. Population Students with SSN are those who require support across multiple domains and often have disabilities in the categories of autism, intellectual disability, multiple disabilities, and deaf-blindness. Research Design We used a qualitative methodology situated in a cr...
Supplementary aids and services have been a provision in special education law since PL 94-142, h... more Supplementary aids and services have been a provision in special education law since PL 94-142, however, almost no guidance has been provided to help teams make decisions about their appropriate selection and use. In this exploratory study, we explore the types of supplementary aids and services selected for students with significant support needs using a conventional content analysis of Individual Education Program (IEPs) from 88 students in grades K-12. Results illustrate the wide variation in types of supplementary aids and services chosen for students overall. Curricular accommodations and personnel supports were the most commonly identified supports, while supports to assist students to communicate and make meaning of curriculum (e.g., curricular modifications) were less common, as were less intrusive supports such as peer assisted learning. Implications for policy, practice, and research are provided.
Decisions about literacy are influenced by assumptions about students' potential. In special educ... more Decisions about literacy are influenced by assumptions about students' potential. In special education settings, teachers sort students based on orality. Assumptions about potential are based on students' orality and behavior. Low teacher self-efficacy leads to limited literacy opportunities. a b s t r a c t Beliefs about students and pedagogical knowledge have been identified as key barriers to accessible general education content and contexts for students with significant disabilities. In this case study of a high school special education literacy class, I examine definitions of literacy, expectations about students, and self-efficacy in the process of teaching literacy to students with significant disabilities. Team members expressed disjointed understandings about the purpose of literacy, lacked pedagogical knowledge, and had poor self-efficacy. Beliefs about " high " and " low " students, defined by students' orality, affected team members' perceptions about the feasibility and priority of literacy for various groups of students.
All students with disabilities are required to access instruction related to the general curricul... more All students with disabilities are required to access instruction related to the general curriculum; however, little is known about how this instruction actually occurs for students with significant intellectual disability, who would be eligible to participate in the alternate assessment based on alternate achievement standards. In this study, we examined 112 literacy activities of eight students eligible for the alternate assessment across 48 hrs. of observation. Using a literacy observation instrument, we recorded 52 features of literacy instruction in relationship to three areas of focus: contextual features (i.e., location, instructional configuration, & others present), materials (i.e., media form, format, & genre), and content of instruction. Results indicate that the participants in this study were 10 times more likely to be exposed to academic literacy when peers without disabilities were present. In addition, instruction outside of special education settings was more likely to include a variety of literacy forms.
Perspectives on expert teaching reveal assumptions about students. Perspectives on expert teachin... more Perspectives on expert teaching reveal assumptions about students. Perspectives on expert teaching reveal assumptions about the purposes of special education. Forms of expert teaching met different functions depending on expectations. Positive narratives about teachers and students contrasted with deficit-oriented views. a b s t r a c t Teachers, school leaders, and faculty (n ¼ 32) were interviewed regarding their perceptions about the expertise of teachers of students with significant support needs. While participants agreed that expert instruction was characterized by knowledge about the student and positivity, their beliefs differed in relation to the functions of those expert skills. Findings revealed that deficit-and asset-oriented views of students were related to views about the professionalism of teachers. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to the apparent link between deficit views about students and views of special education teachers as professionals.
School administrators play an important role in shaping teaching and learning. However, very litt... more School administrators play an important role in shaping teaching and learning. However, very little is known regarding how school administrators perceive instruction for students with severe disabilities and how those perceptions shape expectations and visions for instruction. Semistructured interviews were used to interview 12 administrators responsible for evaluating teachers of students with severe disabilities across a variety of educational settings. The interviews were designed to ascertain administrators' perceptions about teachers' expertise and their ideal vision of instruction for students with severe disabilities. Findings highlight administrators' varying visions of instruction, which reveal the ways these visions might influence their expectations for teachers and students. Implications for inclusion and instructional practices are discussed.
Learning in general education contexts enhances access to general curriculum content for students... more Learning in general education contexts enhances access to general curriculum content for students with disabilities. However, few intervention studies focused on general education content have been conducted in general education settings. The current study provides preliminary evidence of the effectiveness of a literacy intervention using evidence-based practices (i.e., shared reading, embedded instruction, time delay) implemented in the context of a ninth-grade general education English/language arts class. A multiple baselines across conditions design was used to examine the effectiveness of the intervention, and field notes were collected to examine the factors that facilitated and inhibited the integration of the intervention into the general education class routines. Implications are discussed in relationship to future research focusing on interventions to improve access to the general curriculum in general education contexts, as well as for teachers providing such instruction.
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