Managing wildlife populations in the face of global change requires regular data on the abundance... more Managing wildlife populations in the face of global change requires regular data on the abundance and distribution of wild animals, but acquiring these over appropriate spatial scales in a sustainable way has proven challenging. Here we present the data from Snapshot USA 2020, a second annual national mammal survey of the USA. This project involved 152 scientists setting camera traps in a standardized protocol at 1485 locations across 103 arrays in 43 states for a total of 52,710 trap‐nights of survey effort. Most (58) of these arrays were also sampled during the same months (September and October) in 2019, providing a direct comparison of animal populations in 2 years that includes data from both during and before the COVID‐19 pandemic. All data were managed by the eMammal system, with all species identifications checked by at least two reviewers. In total, we recorded 117,415 detections of 78 species of wild mammals, 9236 detections of at least 43 species of birds, 15,851 detectio...
Snags, or standing dead trees, are an important structural component of forest ecosystems. Many a... more Snags, or standing dead trees, are an important structural component of forest ecosystems. Many animals, including endangered species, depend on snags for foraging, protection, or raising young. Climate change, habitat loss, and modification of natural disturbance regimes contribute to changes in the availability and characteristics of snags in forests. Therefore, understanding what natural and artificial processes promote snags with the characteristics necessary for wildlife is a significant conservation concern. We examined how low-severity prescribed fire affected the density and characteristics of snags at 80 sites in the Talladega National Forest, Alabama. We sampled sites within 4 prescribed fire intervals, including 1-3 (previously thinned 4-23 years ago), > 3-8, > 8-12, and > 12 years. At each site, we measured snags across transects on 3 different slope positions, including the ridge, mid-slope, and valley, to account for slope-influenced fire behavior and stressors. The average diameter of snags increased in stands with the shortest prescribed fire interval, but snag height, decay class, and percentage of bark remaining were similar across all fire intervals. Snag density was lowest in the shortest fire interval due to fewer small-and medium-sized hardwood snags. A higher density of large snags was found in the shortest fire interval compared to the longest fire interval. Ridges had a greater density of snags compared to mid-slope and valley positions due to more small-and medium-sized pine snags. Although thinning followed by frequent, low-severity prescribed fire reduces snag density, the increase in density of large-diameter snags provides high-quality habitat for snag-dependent birds and bats. More intense fire and other stressors on ridges likely promote higher densities of snags. Our research indicates forest managers can use prescribed fire and thinning to accomplish multiple management goals while continuing to produce valuable snags for wildlife.
Eastern spotted skunks Spilogale putorius are an understudied species that has experienced range-... more Eastern spotted skunks Spilogale putorius are an understudied species that has experienced range-wide declines. Over the past 16 y, camera traps have become an increasingly common tool to monitor and understand their current distribution. To inform best surveying practices, we reviewed 16 camera-trap studies specifically targeting this species. We focused on reported latency to initial detection and three main aspects of study design: seasonality of detections, baits and lures, and camera-trap brands. Latency to initial detection ranged from 1 to 82 d with a mean of 17.1 d (SD ¼ 9.1). Attractants varied among projects, but most (75%) used sardines as bait. The percentage of skunk detections tended to vary across the year, with the highest percentage of skunk detections occurring in March (92%). We conclude by suggesting best practices and directions for future research techniques that will aid in developing more efficient methods to address key knowledge gaps for this elusive species. Given the long timeframes for latency to initial detection, monitoring individual sites for at least 4 wk, with the use of bait, is likely the best strategy to detect eastern spotted skunks. We encourage further experimental approaches on the effectiveness of different baits and lures, and methods to increase latency to initial detection. Collectively, we hope this leads to the development of a standardized monitoring approach that researchers can implement across studies and states within the eastern spotted skunk's range.
Nearly half of all small carnivore species are declining globally, with many in danger of extinct... more Nearly half of all small carnivore species are declining globally, with many in danger of extinction and requiring urgent conservation attention. We herein describe the formation of a conservation group focused on the formerly poorly understood Spilogale putorius (Eastern Spotted Skunk). The Eastern Spotted Skunk Cooperative Study Group (CSG) was formed in 2015 by experts in the biology and management of the species and currently contains 143 members representing 29 state agencies, 24 universities, 6 federal agencies, 3 non-governmental organizations, and 2 tribal nations. The goals of the CSG are to (1) enhance communication about the species, (2) identify management and research priorities, and (3) facilitate collaborative planning, funding, outreach, monitoring, and research opportunities. This voluntary group has made progress on all 3 goals by facilitating collaborative research and outreach that have greatly advanced our understanding and awareness of the species, including the drafting of a species conservation plan that has been endorsed by every regional government committee that oversees management of Eastern Spotted Skunks across their range. We conclude by profiling the lessons learned and future directions for the CSG, with the hopes that the CSG could be a model for advancing conservation of small carnivores and other species in need of attention around the globe.
The susceptibility of Myotis austroriparius (Southeastern Myotis) to infection with Pseudogymnoas... more The susceptibility of Myotis austroriparius (Southeastern Myotis) to infection with Pseudogymnoascus destructans, the fungus that causes white-nose syndrome (WNS), is unresolved. Our goal was to provide an initial insight on WNS susceptibility of Southeastern Myotis through a combination of fungal swabbing, ultraviolet light (UV) photography, and seasonal counts of hibernating bats in 2 caves known to harbor P. destructans. We swabbed and photographed 61 Southeastern Myotis in 2 Alabama caves during the winter of 2017-2018 and photographed an additional 38 bats at 1 of these sites the subsequent winter. Of the bats swabbed during the first field season, 77% (n = 41) tested positive for P. destructans. None of the 99 bats examined and transilluminated with UV light exhibited any yellow-orange fluorescence characteristic of P. destructans infection. However, other bat species present at both sites had visible white fungal growth. Winter counts of Southeastern Myotis did not decline following the discovery of P. destructans at the hibernaculum where we had winter survey data predating WNS. Although our observations were limited in scope, these data suggest low susceptibility of Southeastern Myotis to WNS compared to other cave-hibernating species.
Spilogale putorius (Eastern Spotted Skunk) is a small, secretive carnivore that has substantially... more Spilogale putorius (Eastern Spotted Skunk) is a small, secretive carnivore that has substantially declined throughout the eastern United States since the mid-1900s. To better understand the current status of Eastern Spotted Skunks, we studied survival and reproduction of the S. p. putorius (Appalachian Spotted Skunk) subspecies across 4 states in the central and southern Appalachian Mountains from 2014 to 2020. Using encounter histories from 99 radio-collared Appalachian Spotted Skunks in a Kaplan–Meier known-fate survival analysis, we calculated a mean annual adult survival rate of 0.58. We did not find support for this survival rate varying by sex, predator cover (canopy cover and topographic ruggedness), or climate. Compared to estimates of survival from previous research, our data suggest that Appalachian Spotted Skunk survival is intermediate to the S. p. interrupta (Plains Spotted Skunk) and S. p. ambarvalis (Florida Spotted Skunk) subspecies of Eastern Spotted Skunk. We locat...
With the accelerating pace of global change, it is imperative that we obtain rapid inventories of... more With the accelerating pace of global change, it is imperative that we obtain rapid inventories of the status and distribution of wildlife for ecological inferences and conservation planning. To address this challenge, we launched the SNAPSHOT USA project, a collaborative survey of terrestrial wildlife populations using camera traps across the United States. For our first annual survey, we compiled data across all 50 states during a 14-week period (17 August–24 November of 2019). We sampled wildlife at 1,509 camera trap sites from 110 camera trap arrays covering 12 different ecoregions across four development zones. This effort resulted in 166,036 unique detections of 83 species of mammals and 17 species of birds. All images were processed through the Smithsonian’s eMammal camera trap data repository and included an expert review phase to ensure taxonomic accuracy of data, resulting in each picture being reviewed at least twice. The results represent a timely and standardized camera trap survey of the United States. All of the 2019 survey data are made available herein. We are currently repeating surveys in fall 2020, opening up the opportunity to other institutions and cooperators to expand coverage of all the urban–wild gradients and ecophysiographic regions of the country. Future data will be available as the database is updated at eMammal.si.edu/snapshot-usa, as will future data paper submissions. These data will be useful for local and macroecological research including the examination of community assembly, effects of environmental and anthropogenic landscape variables, effects of fragmentation and extinction debt dynamics, as well as species-specific population dynamics and conservation action plans. There are no copyright restrictions; please cite this paper when using the data for publication.
Abstract Spilogale putorius (Eastern Spotted Skunk) is a cryptic and little-studied species that ... more Abstract Spilogale putorius (Eastern Spotted Skunk) is a cryptic and little-studied species that has declined in abundance. We report observations of reproduction, mortality, and behavioral interactions for the Appalachian subspecies of the Eastern Spotted Skunk in Alabama. We observed 1 adult skunk with 2 assumed offspring in July, mortality events of 4 radio-collared skunks likely caused by both avian and mammalian predators, and 2 interactions of a skunk with other species: 1 with a Procyon lotor (Raccoon) and 1 with a Lynx rufus (Bobcat). We also describe an interaction between 2 skunks that included a vocalization. Combined, these observations provide insight into the reproduction, mortality, and behavior of this species of conservation concern.
Sciurus niger L. (Eastern Fox Squirrel) is associated with montane Pinus palustris Mill. (Longlea... more Sciurus niger L. (Eastern Fox Squirrel) is associated with montane Pinus palustris Mill. (Longleaf Pine) forests in the Piedmont and Ridge and Valley, but little is known about the species' distribution and abundance within this region. We conducted an occupancy study of Eastern Fox Squirrels in montane Longleaf Pine forests of the Talladega National Forest, AL. We surveyed 73 camera trap sites for Eastern Fox Squirrels and measured surrounding vegetation and landscape features. Eastern Fox Squirrels were patchily distributed across the study area and only observed at 11% of sites. Occupancy modeling indicated Eastern Fox Squirrels had a relatively high probability of detection (0.680) but a low probability of occupancy (0.111). Eastern Fox Squirrel occupancy was negatively associated with slope steepness. This result is possibly because prescribed fire and other restoration efforts of open-pine conditions associated with Eastern Fox Squirrel habitat in Talladega National Forest are focused on logistically accessible ridges and more moderately sloped areas. Steep slopes also likely decrease accessibility and dispersion ability for Eastern Fox Squirrels. The overall low occupancy of Eastern Fox Squirrels in the Shoal Creek Ranger District of Talladega National Forest may be linked to the highly fragmented montane Longleaf Pine habitat caused by topography and past fire suppression.
Sylvilagus obscurus Chapman, Cramer, Dippenaar, and Robinson, 1992, commonly called the Appalachi... more Sylvilagus obscurus Chapman, Cramer, Dippenaar, and Robinson, 1992, commonly called the Appalachian cottontail, is distinguished from other syntopic leporids by its black spot between the ears, black fur along the anterior edge of the ears, and reddishgray sides overlaid with a black wash. One of 22 species in the genus, S. obscurus is found across the Appalachian Mountains region, from Pennsylvania to northern Alabama. An inhabitant of habitats with dense woody understory cover such as early successional forests and mature forests with ericaceous shrubs, this rabbit is considered "Near Threatened," with major threats that include habitat destruction, climate change, and competition with the eastern cottontail, Sylvilagus floridanus.
Spilogale putorius (Eastern Spotted Skunk) is a nocturnal small carnivore that uses sites within ... more Spilogale putorius (Eastern Spotted Skunk) is a nocturnal small carnivore that uses sites within cover for resting, raising of young, and protection from predators and inclement weather. We examined activity patterns of male radio-collared Eastern Spotted Skunks in Alabama by placing game cameras at resting-site entrances during winter and spring. Monitored skunks were strictly nocturnal and were never active before sunset or after sunrise. Ambient temperature and moon illumination influenced skunk activity, with greater aboveground activity occurring at greater ambient temperatures and lower moon illumination. Lower ambient temperatures may decrease skunk activity due to greater thermoregulatory costs and less prey availability. Skunks may reduce aboveground activity during times of greater moon illumination due to increased vulnerability to predation.
The eastern spotted skunk (Spilogale putorius) is a small, nocturnal omnivore that was once commo... more The eastern spotted skunk (Spilogale putorius) is a small, nocturnal omnivore that was once common throughout the eastern United States, but has declined over the last 75 years. We examined den-site selection of eastern spotted skunks in the southern Appalachian Mountains of Alabama from December 2014 to February 2016. We compared the local habitat characteristics of 97 den sites from 8 individual skunks with paired random sites. Dens were most frequently located in burrows, but were also found under uprooted trees, between rocks, in tree stumps, and in tree cavities. Skunks never communally denned and individuals frequently reused the same den. Den sites were located in densely forested areas with greater woody understory cover, midstory cover, and snag density and less overstory density than nearby random sites. Dense understory and midstory around skunk den sites likely provided protective cover from predators, particularly owls. Snags may provide additional cover for spotted skunks while offering possible denning or foraging habitat. Habitat management for eastern spotted skunks in the southern Appalachian Mountains should include retention and promotion of dense understory and midstory cover.
Inquiry-based instruction has been shown to increase student motivation, engagement, and achievem... more Inquiry-based instruction has been shown to increase student motivation, engagement, and achievement in biology education. In this paper, we describe how we used an open-inquiry-based approach to engage undergraduate and graduate students in an upper-level conservation-biology class. As part of this course, students designed and implemented a research project using camera traps to examine questions related to wildlife conservation on their local campus. Students derived their research question through introductory readings and discussion regarding on-campus conservation issues. This approach allowed students to take ownership of the project, fueling enthusiasm and motivation, and promoting the development of core scientific skills. The students organized themselves into research teams at the beginning of the semester, a technique that mimicked how realworld conservation biologists collaborate on large-scale projects that require a range of knowledge and skills. In addition, teamwork allowed students to develop collaboration and communication skills and made them accountable to their peers for class performance. Given the applied nature of this course, the students also engaged in public outreach related to their research via social media and public presentations. These activities gave students the opportunity to learn how to interact with multiple stakeholders and deal with controversial issues in conservation biology.
Spilogale putorius (Eastern Spotted Skunk) is an elusive species, and little is known about their... more Spilogale putorius (Eastern Spotted Skunk) is an elusive species, and little is known about their natural history in the southeastern US. We used a game camera to observe a female Eastern Spotted Skunk in the southern Appalachians of Alabama carrying 6 different prey items to her den from February to August 2015. Half of the observations occurred while she had 2 dependent kits, suggesting she was provisioning them with food. Identified food items included 3 snakes, a small mammal, a fungal sporocarp, and an anuran.
Widespread decline of native freshwater mussels has increased their susceptibility to extinction ... more Widespread decline of native freshwater mussels has increased their susceptibility to extinction from environmental factors such as competition, disease, and predation. Mammals, in particular Ondatra zibethicus (Common Muskrat), are well documented as major predators of freshwater mussels. We assessed the impact of Common Muskrats on the native freshwater-mussel community in Shoal Creek, AL. We surveyed 12.7 km of Shoal Creek for signs of mussel predation by Common Muskrats. Based on the species composition of observed shell middens, Common Muskrats foraged on all 6 native mussel species in Shoal Creek, including federally listed threatened and endangered species (Hamiota altilis [Finelined Pocketbook] and Pleurobema georgianum [Southern Pigtoe], respectively). Common Muskrats appeared to feed on native mussels based on their natural availability rather than exhibiting strong size-selective predation.
Natal dispersal is an important event in the life history of many species. Timing of natal disper... more Natal dispersal is an important event in the life history of many species. Timing of natal dispersal can influence survivorship and subsequent reproductive success. A variety of individual proximal factors determine if and when offspring disperse from the natal territory by influencing the costs of dispersing and the benefits of delaying dispersal. I examined the influence of multiple factors on dispersal age in the banner-tailed kangaroo rat (Dipodomys spectabilis), a solitary species lacking extreme sex-biased dispersal. I used an information theoretic approach to compare Cox proportional hazards regression models of dispersal age for 121 offspring over a 3-year period consisting of low and high population densities. The top-ranked models indicated that dispersal age was influenced by a combination of socioecological factors related to resource competition, environmental conditions, kin competition, and a lesser extent sex. Circumstances that likely reduced the probability of successful dispersal such as intense resource competition at high population density and being born earlier in the breeding season when environmental conditions were poor lead to longer delays in natal dispersal. Offspring in larger litters also dispersed earlier possibly to avoid competition with kin. Sex was weakly supported in top models but may only influence dispersal age at high population densities. These results suggest that the proximal factors that trigger dispersal are influenced by a combination of multiple effects related to the costs of dispersing and the benefits of remaining at home, even in species that do not form long-term social groups or have extreme sex-biased dispersal.
Natal dispersal is an important event in the life history of many species. Timing of natal disper... more Natal dispersal is an important event in the life history of many species. Timing of natal dispersal can influence survivorship and subsequent reproductive success. A variety of individual proximal factors determine if and when offspring disperse from the natal territory by influencing the costs of dispersing and the benefits of delaying dispersal. I examined the influence of multiple factors on dispersal age in the banner-tailed kangaroo rat (Dipodomys spectabilis), a solitary species lacking extreme sex-biased dispersal. I used an information theoretic approach to compare Cox proportional hazards regression models of dispersal age for 121 offspring over a 3-year period consisting of low and high population densities. The top-ranked models indicated that dispersal age was influenced by a combination of socioecological factors related to resource competition, environmental conditions, kin competition, and a lesser extent sex. Circumstances that likely reduced the probability of successful dispersal such as intense resource competition at high population density and being born earlier in the breeding season when environmental conditions were poor lead to longer delays in natal dispersal. Offspring in larger litters also dispersed earlier possibly to avoid competition with kin. Sex was weakly supported in top models but may only influence dispersal age at high population densities. These results suggest that the proximal factors that trigger dispersal are influenced by a combination of multiple effects related to the costs of dispersing and the benefits of remaining at home, even in species that do not form long-term social groups or have extreme sex-biased dispersal.
Managing wildlife populations in the face of global change requires regular data on the abundance... more Managing wildlife populations in the face of global change requires regular data on the abundance and distribution of wild animals, but acquiring these over appropriate spatial scales in a sustainable way has proven challenging. Here we present the data from Snapshot USA 2020, a second annual national mammal survey of the USA. This project involved 152 scientists setting camera traps in a standardized protocol at 1485 locations across 103 arrays in 43 states for a total of 52,710 trap‐nights of survey effort. Most (58) of these arrays were also sampled during the same months (September and October) in 2019, providing a direct comparison of animal populations in 2 years that includes data from both during and before the COVID‐19 pandemic. All data were managed by the eMammal system, with all species identifications checked by at least two reviewers. In total, we recorded 117,415 detections of 78 species of wild mammals, 9236 detections of at least 43 species of birds, 15,851 detectio...
Snags, or standing dead trees, are an important structural component of forest ecosystems. Many a... more Snags, or standing dead trees, are an important structural component of forest ecosystems. Many animals, including endangered species, depend on snags for foraging, protection, or raising young. Climate change, habitat loss, and modification of natural disturbance regimes contribute to changes in the availability and characteristics of snags in forests. Therefore, understanding what natural and artificial processes promote snags with the characteristics necessary for wildlife is a significant conservation concern. We examined how low-severity prescribed fire affected the density and characteristics of snags at 80 sites in the Talladega National Forest, Alabama. We sampled sites within 4 prescribed fire intervals, including 1-3 (previously thinned 4-23 years ago), > 3-8, > 8-12, and > 12 years. At each site, we measured snags across transects on 3 different slope positions, including the ridge, mid-slope, and valley, to account for slope-influenced fire behavior and stressors. The average diameter of snags increased in stands with the shortest prescribed fire interval, but snag height, decay class, and percentage of bark remaining were similar across all fire intervals. Snag density was lowest in the shortest fire interval due to fewer small-and medium-sized hardwood snags. A higher density of large snags was found in the shortest fire interval compared to the longest fire interval. Ridges had a greater density of snags compared to mid-slope and valley positions due to more small-and medium-sized pine snags. Although thinning followed by frequent, low-severity prescribed fire reduces snag density, the increase in density of large-diameter snags provides high-quality habitat for snag-dependent birds and bats. More intense fire and other stressors on ridges likely promote higher densities of snags. Our research indicates forest managers can use prescribed fire and thinning to accomplish multiple management goals while continuing to produce valuable snags for wildlife.
Eastern spotted skunks Spilogale putorius are an understudied species that has experienced range-... more Eastern spotted skunks Spilogale putorius are an understudied species that has experienced range-wide declines. Over the past 16 y, camera traps have become an increasingly common tool to monitor and understand their current distribution. To inform best surveying practices, we reviewed 16 camera-trap studies specifically targeting this species. We focused on reported latency to initial detection and three main aspects of study design: seasonality of detections, baits and lures, and camera-trap brands. Latency to initial detection ranged from 1 to 82 d with a mean of 17.1 d (SD ¼ 9.1). Attractants varied among projects, but most (75%) used sardines as bait. The percentage of skunk detections tended to vary across the year, with the highest percentage of skunk detections occurring in March (92%). We conclude by suggesting best practices and directions for future research techniques that will aid in developing more efficient methods to address key knowledge gaps for this elusive species. Given the long timeframes for latency to initial detection, monitoring individual sites for at least 4 wk, with the use of bait, is likely the best strategy to detect eastern spotted skunks. We encourage further experimental approaches on the effectiveness of different baits and lures, and methods to increase latency to initial detection. Collectively, we hope this leads to the development of a standardized monitoring approach that researchers can implement across studies and states within the eastern spotted skunk's range.
Nearly half of all small carnivore species are declining globally, with many in danger of extinct... more Nearly half of all small carnivore species are declining globally, with many in danger of extinction and requiring urgent conservation attention. We herein describe the formation of a conservation group focused on the formerly poorly understood Spilogale putorius (Eastern Spotted Skunk). The Eastern Spotted Skunk Cooperative Study Group (CSG) was formed in 2015 by experts in the biology and management of the species and currently contains 143 members representing 29 state agencies, 24 universities, 6 federal agencies, 3 non-governmental organizations, and 2 tribal nations. The goals of the CSG are to (1) enhance communication about the species, (2) identify management and research priorities, and (3) facilitate collaborative planning, funding, outreach, monitoring, and research opportunities. This voluntary group has made progress on all 3 goals by facilitating collaborative research and outreach that have greatly advanced our understanding and awareness of the species, including the drafting of a species conservation plan that has been endorsed by every regional government committee that oversees management of Eastern Spotted Skunks across their range. We conclude by profiling the lessons learned and future directions for the CSG, with the hopes that the CSG could be a model for advancing conservation of small carnivores and other species in need of attention around the globe.
The susceptibility of Myotis austroriparius (Southeastern Myotis) to infection with Pseudogymnoas... more The susceptibility of Myotis austroriparius (Southeastern Myotis) to infection with Pseudogymnoascus destructans, the fungus that causes white-nose syndrome (WNS), is unresolved. Our goal was to provide an initial insight on WNS susceptibility of Southeastern Myotis through a combination of fungal swabbing, ultraviolet light (UV) photography, and seasonal counts of hibernating bats in 2 caves known to harbor P. destructans. We swabbed and photographed 61 Southeastern Myotis in 2 Alabama caves during the winter of 2017-2018 and photographed an additional 38 bats at 1 of these sites the subsequent winter. Of the bats swabbed during the first field season, 77% (n = 41) tested positive for P. destructans. None of the 99 bats examined and transilluminated with UV light exhibited any yellow-orange fluorescence characteristic of P. destructans infection. However, other bat species present at both sites had visible white fungal growth. Winter counts of Southeastern Myotis did not decline following the discovery of P. destructans at the hibernaculum where we had winter survey data predating WNS. Although our observations were limited in scope, these data suggest low susceptibility of Southeastern Myotis to WNS compared to other cave-hibernating species.
Spilogale putorius (Eastern Spotted Skunk) is a small, secretive carnivore that has substantially... more Spilogale putorius (Eastern Spotted Skunk) is a small, secretive carnivore that has substantially declined throughout the eastern United States since the mid-1900s. To better understand the current status of Eastern Spotted Skunks, we studied survival and reproduction of the S. p. putorius (Appalachian Spotted Skunk) subspecies across 4 states in the central and southern Appalachian Mountains from 2014 to 2020. Using encounter histories from 99 radio-collared Appalachian Spotted Skunks in a Kaplan–Meier known-fate survival analysis, we calculated a mean annual adult survival rate of 0.58. We did not find support for this survival rate varying by sex, predator cover (canopy cover and topographic ruggedness), or climate. Compared to estimates of survival from previous research, our data suggest that Appalachian Spotted Skunk survival is intermediate to the S. p. interrupta (Plains Spotted Skunk) and S. p. ambarvalis (Florida Spotted Skunk) subspecies of Eastern Spotted Skunk. We locat...
With the accelerating pace of global change, it is imperative that we obtain rapid inventories of... more With the accelerating pace of global change, it is imperative that we obtain rapid inventories of the status and distribution of wildlife for ecological inferences and conservation planning. To address this challenge, we launched the SNAPSHOT USA project, a collaborative survey of terrestrial wildlife populations using camera traps across the United States. For our first annual survey, we compiled data across all 50 states during a 14-week period (17 August–24 November of 2019). We sampled wildlife at 1,509 camera trap sites from 110 camera trap arrays covering 12 different ecoregions across four development zones. This effort resulted in 166,036 unique detections of 83 species of mammals and 17 species of birds. All images were processed through the Smithsonian’s eMammal camera trap data repository and included an expert review phase to ensure taxonomic accuracy of data, resulting in each picture being reviewed at least twice. The results represent a timely and standardized camera trap survey of the United States. All of the 2019 survey data are made available herein. We are currently repeating surveys in fall 2020, opening up the opportunity to other institutions and cooperators to expand coverage of all the urban–wild gradients and ecophysiographic regions of the country. Future data will be available as the database is updated at eMammal.si.edu/snapshot-usa, as will future data paper submissions. These data will be useful for local and macroecological research including the examination of community assembly, effects of environmental and anthropogenic landscape variables, effects of fragmentation and extinction debt dynamics, as well as species-specific population dynamics and conservation action plans. There are no copyright restrictions; please cite this paper when using the data for publication.
Abstract Spilogale putorius (Eastern Spotted Skunk) is a cryptic and little-studied species that ... more Abstract Spilogale putorius (Eastern Spotted Skunk) is a cryptic and little-studied species that has declined in abundance. We report observations of reproduction, mortality, and behavioral interactions for the Appalachian subspecies of the Eastern Spotted Skunk in Alabama. We observed 1 adult skunk with 2 assumed offspring in July, mortality events of 4 radio-collared skunks likely caused by both avian and mammalian predators, and 2 interactions of a skunk with other species: 1 with a Procyon lotor (Raccoon) and 1 with a Lynx rufus (Bobcat). We also describe an interaction between 2 skunks that included a vocalization. Combined, these observations provide insight into the reproduction, mortality, and behavior of this species of conservation concern.
Sciurus niger L. (Eastern Fox Squirrel) is associated with montane Pinus palustris Mill. (Longlea... more Sciurus niger L. (Eastern Fox Squirrel) is associated with montane Pinus palustris Mill. (Longleaf Pine) forests in the Piedmont and Ridge and Valley, but little is known about the species' distribution and abundance within this region. We conducted an occupancy study of Eastern Fox Squirrels in montane Longleaf Pine forests of the Talladega National Forest, AL. We surveyed 73 camera trap sites for Eastern Fox Squirrels and measured surrounding vegetation and landscape features. Eastern Fox Squirrels were patchily distributed across the study area and only observed at 11% of sites. Occupancy modeling indicated Eastern Fox Squirrels had a relatively high probability of detection (0.680) but a low probability of occupancy (0.111). Eastern Fox Squirrel occupancy was negatively associated with slope steepness. This result is possibly because prescribed fire and other restoration efforts of open-pine conditions associated with Eastern Fox Squirrel habitat in Talladega National Forest are focused on logistically accessible ridges and more moderately sloped areas. Steep slopes also likely decrease accessibility and dispersion ability for Eastern Fox Squirrels. The overall low occupancy of Eastern Fox Squirrels in the Shoal Creek Ranger District of Talladega National Forest may be linked to the highly fragmented montane Longleaf Pine habitat caused by topography and past fire suppression.
Sylvilagus obscurus Chapman, Cramer, Dippenaar, and Robinson, 1992, commonly called the Appalachi... more Sylvilagus obscurus Chapman, Cramer, Dippenaar, and Robinson, 1992, commonly called the Appalachian cottontail, is distinguished from other syntopic leporids by its black spot between the ears, black fur along the anterior edge of the ears, and reddishgray sides overlaid with a black wash. One of 22 species in the genus, S. obscurus is found across the Appalachian Mountains region, from Pennsylvania to northern Alabama. An inhabitant of habitats with dense woody understory cover such as early successional forests and mature forests with ericaceous shrubs, this rabbit is considered "Near Threatened," with major threats that include habitat destruction, climate change, and competition with the eastern cottontail, Sylvilagus floridanus.
Spilogale putorius (Eastern Spotted Skunk) is a nocturnal small carnivore that uses sites within ... more Spilogale putorius (Eastern Spotted Skunk) is a nocturnal small carnivore that uses sites within cover for resting, raising of young, and protection from predators and inclement weather. We examined activity patterns of male radio-collared Eastern Spotted Skunks in Alabama by placing game cameras at resting-site entrances during winter and spring. Monitored skunks were strictly nocturnal and were never active before sunset or after sunrise. Ambient temperature and moon illumination influenced skunk activity, with greater aboveground activity occurring at greater ambient temperatures and lower moon illumination. Lower ambient temperatures may decrease skunk activity due to greater thermoregulatory costs and less prey availability. Skunks may reduce aboveground activity during times of greater moon illumination due to increased vulnerability to predation.
The eastern spotted skunk (Spilogale putorius) is a small, nocturnal omnivore that was once commo... more The eastern spotted skunk (Spilogale putorius) is a small, nocturnal omnivore that was once common throughout the eastern United States, but has declined over the last 75 years. We examined den-site selection of eastern spotted skunks in the southern Appalachian Mountains of Alabama from December 2014 to February 2016. We compared the local habitat characteristics of 97 den sites from 8 individual skunks with paired random sites. Dens were most frequently located in burrows, but were also found under uprooted trees, between rocks, in tree stumps, and in tree cavities. Skunks never communally denned and individuals frequently reused the same den. Den sites were located in densely forested areas with greater woody understory cover, midstory cover, and snag density and less overstory density than nearby random sites. Dense understory and midstory around skunk den sites likely provided protective cover from predators, particularly owls. Snags may provide additional cover for spotted skunks while offering possible denning or foraging habitat. Habitat management for eastern spotted skunks in the southern Appalachian Mountains should include retention and promotion of dense understory and midstory cover.
Inquiry-based instruction has been shown to increase student motivation, engagement, and achievem... more Inquiry-based instruction has been shown to increase student motivation, engagement, and achievement in biology education. In this paper, we describe how we used an open-inquiry-based approach to engage undergraduate and graduate students in an upper-level conservation-biology class. As part of this course, students designed and implemented a research project using camera traps to examine questions related to wildlife conservation on their local campus. Students derived their research question through introductory readings and discussion regarding on-campus conservation issues. This approach allowed students to take ownership of the project, fueling enthusiasm and motivation, and promoting the development of core scientific skills. The students organized themselves into research teams at the beginning of the semester, a technique that mimicked how realworld conservation biologists collaborate on large-scale projects that require a range of knowledge and skills. In addition, teamwork allowed students to develop collaboration and communication skills and made them accountable to their peers for class performance. Given the applied nature of this course, the students also engaged in public outreach related to their research via social media and public presentations. These activities gave students the opportunity to learn how to interact with multiple stakeholders and deal with controversial issues in conservation biology.
Spilogale putorius (Eastern Spotted Skunk) is an elusive species, and little is known about their... more Spilogale putorius (Eastern Spotted Skunk) is an elusive species, and little is known about their natural history in the southeastern US. We used a game camera to observe a female Eastern Spotted Skunk in the southern Appalachians of Alabama carrying 6 different prey items to her den from February to August 2015. Half of the observations occurred while she had 2 dependent kits, suggesting she was provisioning them with food. Identified food items included 3 snakes, a small mammal, a fungal sporocarp, and an anuran.
Widespread decline of native freshwater mussels has increased their susceptibility to extinction ... more Widespread decline of native freshwater mussels has increased their susceptibility to extinction from environmental factors such as competition, disease, and predation. Mammals, in particular Ondatra zibethicus (Common Muskrat), are well documented as major predators of freshwater mussels. We assessed the impact of Common Muskrats on the native freshwater-mussel community in Shoal Creek, AL. We surveyed 12.7 km of Shoal Creek for signs of mussel predation by Common Muskrats. Based on the species composition of observed shell middens, Common Muskrats foraged on all 6 native mussel species in Shoal Creek, including federally listed threatened and endangered species (Hamiota altilis [Finelined Pocketbook] and Pleurobema georgianum [Southern Pigtoe], respectively). Common Muskrats appeared to feed on native mussels based on their natural availability rather than exhibiting strong size-selective predation.
Natal dispersal is an important event in the life history of many species. Timing of natal disper... more Natal dispersal is an important event in the life history of many species. Timing of natal dispersal can influence survivorship and subsequent reproductive success. A variety of individual proximal factors determine if and when offspring disperse from the natal territory by influencing the costs of dispersing and the benefits of delaying dispersal. I examined the influence of multiple factors on dispersal age in the banner-tailed kangaroo rat (Dipodomys spectabilis), a solitary species lacking extreme sex-biased dispersal. I used an information theoretic approach to compare Cox proportional hazards regression models of dispersal age for 121 offspring over a 3-year period consisting of low and high population densities. The top-ranked models indicated that dispersal age was influenced by a combination of socioecological factors related to resource competition, environmental conditions, kin competition, and a lesser extent sex. Circumstances that likely reduced the probability of successful dispersal such as intense resource competition at high population density and being born earlier in the breeding season when environmental conditions were poor lead to longer delays in natal dispersal. Offspring in larger litters also dispersed earlier possibly to avoid competition with kin. Sex was weakly supported in top models but may only influence dispersal age at high population densities. These results suggest that the proximal factors that trigger dispersal are influenced by a combination of multiple effects related to the costs of dispersing and the benefits of remaining at home, even in species that do not form long-term social groups or have extreme sex-biased dispersal.
Natal dispersal is an important event in the life history of many species. Timing of natal disper... more Natal dispersal is an important event in the life history of many species. Timing of natal dispersal can influence survivorship and subsequent reproductive success. A variety of individual proximal factors determine if and when offspring disperse from the natal territory by influencing the costs of dispersing and the benefits of delaying dispersal. I examined the influence of multiple factors on dispersal age in the banner-tailed kangaroo rat (Dipodomys spectabilis), a solitary species lacking extreme sex-biased dispersal. I used an information theoretic approach to compare Cox proportional hazards regression models of dispersal age for 121 offspring over a 3-year period consisting of low and high population densities. The top-ranked models indicated that dispersal age was influenced by a combination of socioecological factors related to resource competition, environmental conditions, kin competition, and a lesser extent sex. Circumstances that likely reduced the probability of successful dispersal such as intense resource competition at high population density and being born earlier in the breeding season when environmental conditions were poor lead to longer delays in natal dispersal. Offspring in larger litters also dispersed earlier possibly to avoid competition with kin. Sex was weakly supported in top models but may only influence dispersal age at high population densities. These results suggest that the proximal factors that trigger dispersal are influenced by a combination of multiple effects related to the costs of dispersing and the benefits of remaining at home, even in species that do not form long-term social groups or have extreme sex-biased dispersal.
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Papers by Andrew Edelman