Op 10 mei 1940 staakten de Belgische vrijmetselaarsloges al hun activiteiten. Het Duitse leger wa... more Op 10 mei 1940 staakten de Belgische vrijmetselaarsloges al hun activiteiten. Het Duitse leger was eerder die dag België binnengevallen, en de bezetting van het land door het naziregime voorspelde moeilijke tijden voor de vrijmetselarij. In de nationaal-socialistische levensbeschouwing vormde de vrijmetselarij een afdeling van het 'Internationale Jodendom', dat streefde naar wereldheerschappij. De werking van de loges werd onmogelijk gemaakt, vrijmetselaars werden opgepakt en naar de kampen gestuurd, en de collaboratie toonde zich bijzonder dienstbaar om de Reichssicherheitsdienst hierin bij te staan. Een gespecialiseerde organisatie, de Belgische Antimaçonnieke Liga 'De Bezem / L'Epuration' werd door de volgelingen van de Nieuwe Orde opgericht. De vereniging, die al snel ten onder ging aan interne ruzies, organiseerde vanaf 1941 een reeks van 'antimaçonnieke tentoonstellingen' op verschillende locaties. Na de oorlog wachtte de vrijmetselarij een moeizaam herstel.
The Archives and Museum of the Flemish Life in Brussels (Archief en Museum voor het Vlaams Leven ... more The Archives and Museum of the Flemish Life in Brussels (Archief en Museum voor het Vlaams Leven te Brussel - AMVB) celibrated their 30th anniversary in 2007. The main topic at the conference, organized to mark this event, was the importance of the Dutch language and the Flemish culture in the Belgian capital. Although Brussels is officially billingual, the Dutch language was often regarded as inferior. This still was the case in the 1970's, when the AMVB was founded in order to preserve the Flemish heritage. Times are now changed: today Dutch is probably as important to Brussels as French.
The conference focussed on four themes: social-cultural organizations; performing arts; education; and politics.
Opening speech was given by Mr. Wim Van der Elst, president of the board of the AMVB, followed by a general presentation by Jimmy Koppen, secretary of the board and conference organizator.
The first paper was presented by dr. Eva Schandevyl (Free University Brussels - VUB) on the Stichting-Lodewijk de Raet, a Flemish social-cultural association (est. 1952) that organized adult education. Next was An Macharis, director of Citizenne (successor to the Stichting-Lodewijk de Raet) and spoke about the main challenges of this organization today.
Professor Jaak Van Schoor (Ghent University) analyzed the history of the Royal Flemish Theatre in Brussels from its foundation in the 1870's until today. This paper was completed by Geert Cochez, coordinator of the Brussels Kunstenoverleg (a cultural network that gathers 70 organizations involved in performing arts)
Dr. Rudi Janssens (Free University Brussels - VUB) discussed the genesis of Dutch schools in Brussels and his paper preceded the presentation of Guy Vanhengel, Minister of Education in the Brussels government.
Rik Röttger (PhD-student, Free University Brussels - VUB) talked about the political ideas and policy of 19th-century Mayor Charles Buls. Finally, dr. Roel De Groof (Free University Brussels - VUB) discussed possible perspectives for Brussels as Flemish, Belgian and European capital.
A few years ago, the Province of Flemish Brabant launched an initiative to study the impact of mo... more A few years ago, the Province of Flemish Brabant launched an initiative to study the impact of more than thirty five years of language facilities in the six communes in the Flemish Periphery of Brussels: Drogenbos, Kraainem, Linkebeek, Sint-Genesius Rode, Wemmel and Wezembeek-Oppem. The remit was extensive. It was to cover changes in the decisionmaking
process from 1963 until today in context, the socio-demographic, linguistic and political developments in the communes in question and how they correlated with the facility system, the application of the legislation in practice and related disputes, the attitude of the local authorities concerned, and the impact of the system on the residents themselves in terms of their actual language knowledge and language use. Bart Distelmans, licenciate (Belgian university degree) in Political Science and Communications Studies and contemporary history licentiate Jimmy Koppen, contemporary historian – both of whom had meanwhile obtained support from the Research Foundation Flanders – undertook the research into the political and administrative aspects, and it was agreed with sociologist Rudi Janssens that he would handle the research into language practices in the six facility communes after the Brussels study was completed, because this manner of proceeding would enable him to make comparisons between Brussels and the six facility communes.
De Veldbloem was oorspronkelijk een literair en Vlaamsvoelend genootschap, opgericht in Brussel i... more De Veldbloem was oorspronkelijk een literair en Vlaamsvoelend genootschap, opgericht in Brussel in 1852. Onder invloed van Julius Hoste evolueerde zij tot een liberale drukkingsgroep. Vanuit De Veldbloem zou in 1875 de (Koninklijke) Vlaamse Schouwburg ontstaan. In 1892 ging De Veldbloem, samen met de Liberale Vlaamsche Bond, op in de Vlaamsche Volkspartij, een tevergeefse poging om Vlaams politiek gewicht in de Brusselse schaal te leggen. Het artikel verscheen in Arduin. Tijdschrift van het Archief en Museum voor het Vlaams Leven te Brussel, jg.1, 2007, nr.2, pp.24-37.
Bijdrage in het Liber Alumnorum van prof.em. Els Witte, De Tuin van Heden. Dertig jaar wetenschap... more Bijdrage in het Liber Alumnorum van prof.em. Els Witte, De Tuin van Heden. Dertig jaar wetenschappelijk onderzoek over de hedendaagse Belgische samenleving, onder redactie van Guy Vanthemsche, Machteld De Metsenaere en Jean-Claude Brugelman. Brussel, ASP/VUBPRESS, 2007, pp.209-231.
A ‘morceau’ or a ‘pièce d’architecture’ or the presentation of a ‘planche’ is the definition of a... more A ‘morceau’ or a ‘pièce d’architecture’ or the presentation of a ‘planche’ is the definition of a lecture given during Lodge meetings, as well as the written text of that speech. The practice of ‘morceaux d’architecture’ is very common in French and Belgian Lodges. However, one must not confuse the ‘morceaux d’architecture’ with the lectures that are formal or methodical discourses intended for instruction. In other words, lectures, in the Masonic meaning of the word, instruct the first, second and final degree of Craft Masonry of symbolism, tradition and rules of that specific degree. In this paper, given at the 3rd International Conference on the History of Freemasonry, I highlight the evolution of the 'conférence' or the 'morceau d'architecture' in Belgian Freemasonry in the 19th century.
Erich Ludendorff, head of the German General Staff during the First World War, politician, anti-S... more Erich Ludendorff, head of the German General Staff during the First World War, politician, anti-Semite, 'leader' of the Völkisch movement in Germany in the 1920's, author of several anti-Masonic publications. His infamous 1927 pamphlet 'Destruction of Freemasonry through revelation of its secrets' was, up to a certain point, highly influential. This paper analyses his motives and role in the anti-Masonic discourse.
“Ôtons le masque à nos persécuteurs!” Belgian Freemasonry in search of her own identity and her c... more “Ôtons le masque à nos persécuteurs!” Belgian Freemasonry in search of her own identity and her confrontation with Catholicism, 1830-1840.
It is an often heard myth that, as a result of the Episcopal letter of December 28, 1837, Belgian Freemasonry quickly evolved from a philanthropic society to a politically active community. The bishops summoned that each Catholic, active in a Masonic lodge, was obliged to renounce Freemasonry. The Episcopal letter was promulgated shortly after new Masonic lodge was opened in the city of Ghent, in presence of Grand Master Goswin de Stassart – at the same time Liberal politician and Speaker of the Belgian Senate. As a reaction, the faithful Freemasons, surprised by the ban, left their lodges. These were now dominated by anti-clericals like Pierre-Théodore Verhaegen.
Reality, however, is much more complicated. It is not true that anti-clericalism or suspicion toward the clergy was completely absent from early 19th-century Freemasonry. Several incidents occurred: in 1816 for instance the premises of the lodge of Lokeren in the province of East Flanders were startled by a chivari of churchgoers, returning from Sunday service. And in 1819 the clergy of Liège refused to bury the local Worshipful Master in the lodge’s gardens. The foundation, in 1834, of the Université Libre de Bruxelles, initiated by Freemasonry and a straightforward reaction to the Catholic University of Leuven was in fact the most striking example of the existing differences between these two ideologies.
Another assumption is that Belgian Freemasonry formed a whole. But immediately following the nation’s independence in 1830 this was truly not the case. The schism with Dutch Freemasonry caused a trauma and the establishment of the Grand Orient of Belgium in 1833 could not offer a real cure. A younger generation of Freemasons, headed by the already mentioned Verhaegen, took the view that the Masonic lodges should take up their roles as think tanks of Liberalism, just like Catholic Church was the stronghold behind the Catholic Party. But not all Belgian Freemasons followed his example. In Ghent, the Masonic lodge of Le Septentrion stayed under the auspices of the Great East of the Netherlands. The establishment of a new lodge in this city, but now managed by the Grand Orient of Belgium, was in the first place meant to neutralize the local Orangist influence.
The bishops nevertheless took this as an opportunity to step into the limelight to indirectly accuse Freemasonry of political activism. The circular letter itself showed the episcopacy as a unity, but this was only in appearance. The letter actually made clear that the Catholic Church herself was not reticent about taking political action herself. For Freemasons, especially Verhaegen, it represented the living proof that the Catholic Church was indeed a treat to Liberal society and to the freedom of conscience. The ‘masks of the persecutors’ now fell’, like was sung in the Masonic cantata “Les francs-maçons et le clergé belge”. Almost no-one left his lodge because of the ban issued by the Episcopal letter. Rather moderate and conservative Freemasons like de Stassart were forced to step aside. The letter can consequently not be seen as a rift but rather as a highlight in the already stressed relationship between Freemasonry and Catholicism in 19th-century Belgium.
Between science and pseudo-historiography. Research into Freemasonry in Belgium.
Since the 19... more Between science and pseudo-historiography. Research into Freemasonry in Belgium.
Since the 1970's, Freemasonry as a social phenomenon became part of historial research in Belgium. Already in 1985 Els Witte stated that both Freemasons themselves as historians could benefit from a truly scientific approach. After all, historians and researchers cannot deny or minimize the influence of Freemasonry on secularization in 19th-century Belgium. However, research into Freemasonry requires from the historian to understand the basics of the philosophical, ideological and cultural features of Belgian Freemasonry. He must also realize the complexity of Freemasonry as a social or cultural phenomenon. Moreover, Belgian Freemasonry has rather complicated origins and their points of interest can differ remarkably from Freemasonry abroad. At this moment, the Belgian Masonic lodges are under six different umbrellas, without even mentioning rather suspicious para-Masonic associations or fraternities. All the Masonic lodges can also act autonomously. Therefore Masonic historiography can sometimes be quite a challenge.
This paper offers a survey of the most remarkable and important publications and research results, made by both Freemasons as well as scholars.
According to Wichtl, author of 'Weltfreimaurerei – Weltrevolution – Weltrepublik', the Freemason ... more According to Wichtl, author of 'Weltfreimaurerei – Weltrevolution – Weltrepublik', the Freemason was an ‘artificial Jew’, promoted Communism or Bolshevism all over the world and was – through intrigues and manipulations – the main one responsible for the outbreak of war in 1914. The National-Socialist ideology firmly embedded this myth. However, neither did the Nazis nor Wichtl invent this conspiracy theory: references to the Judeo Masonic plot were already made during the Dreyfus Affair in the 1890’s, and much earlier in the 19th century the anti-Masonic discourse already referred to anti-Semitism. This paper analyzes why radical nationalism and anti-Masonry are in line. What arguments are used to describe Freemasonry as anti-nationalist or anti-patriotic? How are these conspiracy theories constructed? And how were they present in the minds and works of two personalities, namely Ernest Jouin in France and Erich Ludendorff in Germany. Both were leading opinion formers in the interwar nationalist discourse and championed the belief in a plot-theory of history.
Liberal Catholic and anti-Mason. The discourse of Amand Neut (1812-1884) against Belgian Freemaso... more Liberal Catholic and anti-Mason. The discourse of Amand Neut (1812-1884) against Belgian Freemasonry and his role at the Catholic Conferences.
In the 1860’s, Belgium was governed by the Liberal Party, leaving the divided Catholic Party in a state of suspense. Two tendencies existed within the latter: the Liberal Catholics were in support of the nation’s Constitution and believed that the freedom of education and association would be in the benefit of Catholicism; they did not want their policies to be controlled by the Church or the bishops. On the other hand, the Ultramontanists renounced the Liberal Constitution and called for the moral and political support of Rome. Both factions however apparently took an unanimous stand at the Catholic Conferences, organized at the city of Mechelen in 1863, 1864 and 1867, where they discussed their strategy against the anti-clerical Liberal government. One of the organizers of these conferences was the Liberal Catholic journalist Amand Neut. At the first conference the ‘Protestants’ and the ‘Liberals’ were generalized as the ‘enemies’ of Catholicism, without giving a clear definition who this enemy really was. Speakers at the second conference called the ‘Liberals’ members of a sect opposing the Catholic faith and at the third and provisional final conference Freemasonry was now ‘officially’ considered as the enemy force behind Liberalism in Belgian politics. Between the second and third conference, Amand Neut published several books with a new approach to Freemasonry: official Masonic documents and leaked correspondence were published, often without additional comments. This technique was soon to be copied abroad; the works of Nicolas Deschamps in France for instance shared the same point of departure. No longer were presuppositions, myths and far-fetched conspiracy theories used to criticize the influence of Freemasonry in society. Neut himself believed that the Belgian Liberals and Freemasons abused the constitutional liberties to sabotage Catholicism. However, after 1870, when the Catholic Party returned to government, Neut never again stepped into the footlight as an anti-Masonic opinion former. The Liberal Catholics were now heavily outnumbered and the influence of Ultramontanism on the Catholic world view in Belgium became dominant.
Op 10 mei 1940 staakten de Belgische vrijmetselaarsloges al hun activiteiten. Het Duitse leger wa... more Op 10 mei 1940 staakten de Belgische vrijmetselaarsloges al hun activiteiten. Het Duitse leger was eerder die dag België binnengevallen, en de bezetting van het land door het naziregime voorspelde moeilijke tijden voor de vrijmetselarij. In de nationaal-socialistische levensbeschouwing vormde de vrijmetselarij een afdeling van het 'Internationale Jodendom', dat streefde naar wereldheerschappij. De werking van de loges werd onmogelijk gemaakt, vrijmetselaars werden opgepakt en naar de kampen gestuurd, en de collaboratie toonde zich bijzonder dienstbaar om de Reichssicherheitsdienst hierin bij te staan. Een gespecialiseerde organisatie, de Belgische Antimaçonnieke Liga 'De Bezem / L'Epuration' werd door de volgelingen van de Nieuwe Orde opgericht. De vereniging, die al snel ten onder ging aan interne ruzies, organiseerde vanaf 1941 een reeks van 'antimaçonnieke tentoonstellingen' op verschillende locaties. Na de oorlog wachtte de vrijmetselarij een moeizaam herstel.
The Archives and Museum of the Flemish Life in Brussels (Archief en Museum voor het Vlaams Leven ... more The Archives and Museum of the Flemish Life in Brussels (Archief en Museum voor het Vlaams Leven te Brussel - AMVB) celibrated their 30th anniversary in 2007. The main topic at the conference, organized to mark this event, was the importance of the Dutch language and the Flemish culture in the Belgian capital. Although Brussels is officially billingual, the Dutch language was often regarded as inferior. This still was the case in the 1970's, when the AMVB was founded in order to preserve the Flemish heritage. Times are now changed: today Dutch is probably as important to Brussels as French.
The conference focussed on four themes: social-cultural organizations; performing arts; education; and politics.
Opening speech was given by Mr. Wim Van der Elst, president of the board of the AMVB, followed by a general presentation by Jimmy Koppen, secretary of the board and conference organizator.
The first paper was presented by dr. Eva Schandevyl (Free University Brussels - VUB) on the Stichting-Lodewijk de Raet, a Flemish social-cultural association (est. 1952) that organized adult education. Next was An Macharis, director of Citizenne (successor to the Stichting-Lodewijk de Raet) and spoke about the main challenges of this organization today.
Professor Jaak Van Schoor (Ghent University) analyzed the history of the Royal Flemish Theatre in Brussels from its foundation in the 1870's until today. This paper was completed by Geert Cochez, coordinator of the Brussels Kunstenoverleg (a cultural network that gathers 70 organizations involved in performing arts)
Dr. Rudi Janssens (Free University Brussels - VUB) discussed the genesis of Dutch schools in Brussels and his paper preceded the presentation of Guy Vanhengel, Minister of Education in the Brussels government.
Rik Röttger (PhD-student, Free University Brussels - VUB) talked about the political ideas and policy of 19th-century Mayor Charles Buls. Finally, dr. Roel De Groof (Free University Brussels - VUB) discussed possible perspectives for Brussels as Flemish, Belgian and European capital.
A few years ago, the Province of Flemish Brabant launched an initiative to study the impact of mo... more A few years ago, the Province of Flemish Brabant launched an initiative to study the impact of more than thirty five years of language facilities in the six communes in the Flemish Periphery of Brussels: Drogenbos, Kraainem, Linkebeek, Sint-Genesius Rode, Wemmel and Wezembeek-Oppem. The remit was extensive. It was to cover changes in the decisionmaking
process from 1963 until today in context, the socio-demographic, linguistic and political developments in the communes in question and how they correlated with the facility system, the application of the legislation in practice and related disputes, the attitude of the local authorities concerned, and the impact of the system on the residents themselves in terms of their actual language knowledge and language use. Bart Distelmans, licenciate (Belgian university degree) in Political Science and Communications Studies and contemporary history licentiate Jimmy Koppen, contemporary historian – both of whom had meanwhile obtained support from the Research Foundation Flanders – undertook the research into the political and administrative aspects, and it was agreed with sociologist Rudi Janssens that he would handle the research into language practices in the six facility communes after the Brussels study was completed, because this manner of proceeding would enable him to make comparisons between Brussels and the six facility communes.
De Veldbloem was oorspronkelijk een literair en Vlaamsvoelend genootschap, opgericht in Brussel i... more De Veldbloem was oorspronkelijk een literair en Vlaamsvoelend genootschap, opgericht in Brussel in 1852. Onder invloed van Julius Hoste evolueerde zij tot een liberale drukkingsgroep. Vanuit De Veldbloem zou in 1875 de (Koninklijke) Vlaamse Schouwburg ontstaan. In 1892 ging De Veldbloem, samen met de Liberale Vlaamsche Bond, op in de Vlaamsche Volkspartij, een tevergeefse poging om Vlaams politiek gewicht in de Brusselse schaal te leggen. Het artikel verscheen in Arduin. Tijdschrift van het Archief en Museum voor het Vlaams Leven te Brussel, jg.1, 2007, nr.2, pp.24-37.
Bijdrage in het Liber Alumnorum van prof.em. Els Witte, De Tuin van Heden. Dertig jaar wetenschap... more Bijdrage in het Liber Alumnorum van prof.em. Els Witte, De Tuin van Heden. Dertig jaar wetenschappelijk onderzoek over de hedendaagse Belgische samenleving, onder redactie van Guy Vanthemsche, Machteld De Metsenaere en Jean-Claude Brugelman. Brussel, ASP/VUBPRESS, 2007, pp.209-231.
A ‘morceau’ or a ‘pièce d’architecture’ or the presentation of a ‘planche’ is the definition of a... more A ‘morceau’ or a ‘pièce d’architecture’ or the presentation of a ‘planche’ is the definition of a lecture given during Lodge meetings, as well as the written text of that speech. The practice of ‘morceaux d’architecture’ is very common in French and Belgian Lodges. However, one must not confuse the ‘morceaux d’architecture’ with the lectures that are formal or methodical discourses intended for instruction. In other words, lectures, in the Masonic meaning of the word, instruct the first, second and final degree of Craft Masonry of symbolism, tradition and rules of that specific degree. In this paper, given at the 3rd International Conference on the History of Freemasonry, I highlight the evolution of the 'conférence' or the 'morceau d'architecture' in Belgian Freemasonry in the 19th century.
Erich Ludendorff, head of the German General Staff during the First World War, politician, anti-S... more Erich Ludendorff, head of the German General Staff during the First World War, politician, anti-Semite, 'leader' of the Völkisch movement in Germany in the 1920's, author of several anti-Masonic publications. His infamous 1927 pamphlet 'Destruction of Freemasonry through revelation of its secrets' was, up to a certain point, highly influential. This paper analyses his motives and role in the anti-Masonic discourse.
“Ôtons le masque à nos persécuteurs!” Belgian Freemasonry in search of her own identity and her c... more “Ôtons le masque à nos persécuteurs!” Belgian Freemasonry in search of her own identity and her confrontation with Catholicism, 1830-1840.
It is an often heard myth that, as a result of the Episcopal letter of December 28, 1837, Belgian Freemasonry quickly evolved from a philanthropic society to a politically active community. The bishops summoned that each Catholic, active in a Masonic lodge, was obliged to renounce Freemasonry. The Episcopal letter was promulgated shortly after new Masonic lodge was opened in the city of Ghent, in presence of Grand Master Goswin de Stassart – at the same time Liberal politician and Speaker of the Belgian Senate. As a reaction, the faithful Freemasons, surprised by the ban, left their lodges. These were now dominated by anti-clericals like Pierre-Théodore Verhaegen.
Reality, however, is much more complicated. It is not true that anti-clericalism or suspicion toward the clergy was completely absent from early 19th-century Freemasonry. Several incidents occurred: in 1816 for instance the premises of the lodge of Lokeren in the province of East Flanders were startled by a chivari of churchgoers, returning from Sunday service. And in 1819 the clergy of Liège refused to bury the local Worshipful Master in the lodge’s gardens. The foundation, in 1834, of the Université Libre de Bruxelles, initiated by Freemasonry and a straightforward reaction to the Catholic University of Leuven was in fact the most striking example of the existing differences between these two ideologies.
Another assumption is that Belgian Freemasonry formed a whole. But immediately following the nation’s independence in 1830 this was truly not the case. The schism with Dutch Freemasonry caused a trauma and the establishment of the Grand Orient of Belgium in 1833 could not offer a real cure. A younger generation of Freemasons, headed by the already mentioned Verhaegen, took the view that the Masonic lodges should take up their roles as think tanks of Liberalism, just like Catholic Church was the stronghold behind the Catholic Party. But not all Belgian Freemasons followed his example. In Ghent, the Masonic lodge of Le Septentrion stayed under the auspices of the Great East of the Netherlands. The establishment of a new lodge in this city, but now managed by the Grand Orient of Belgium, was in the first place meant to neutralize the local Orangist influence.
The bishops nevertheless took this as an opportunity to step into the limelight to indirectly accuse Freemasonry of political activism. The circular letter itself showed the episcopacy as a unity, but this was only in appearance. The letter actually made clear that the Catholic Church herself was not reticent about taking political action herself. For Freemasons, especially Verhaegen, it represented the living proof that the Catholic Church was indeed a treat to Liberal society and to the freedom of conscience. The ‘masks of the persecutors’ now fell’, like was sung in the Masonic cantata “Les francs-maçons et le clergé belge”. Almost no-one left his lodge because of the ban issued by the Episcopal letter. Rather moderate and conservative Freemasons like de Stassart were forced to step aside. The letter can consequently not be seen as a rift but rather as a highlight in the already stressed relationship between Freemasonry and Catholicism in 19th-century Belgium.
Between science and pseudo-historiography. Research into Freemasonry in Belgium.
Since the 19... more Between science and pseudo-historiography. Research into Freemasonry in Belgium.
Since the 1970's, Freemasonry as a social phenomenon became part of historial research in Belgium. Already in 1985 Els Witte stated that both Freemasons themselves as historians could benefit from a truly scientific approach. After all, historians and researchers cannot deny or minimize the influence of Freemasonry on secularization in 19th-century Belgium. However, research into Freemasonry requires from the historian to understand the basics of the philosophical, ideological and cultural features of Belgian Freemasonry. He must also realize the complexity of Freemasonry as a social or cultural phenomenon. Moreover, Belgian Freemasonry has rather complicated origins and their points of interest can differ remarkably from Freemasonry abroad. At this moment, the Belgian Masonic lodges are under six different umbrellas, without even mentioning rather suspicious para-Masonic associations or fraternities. All the Masonic lodges can also act autonomously. Therefore Masonic historiography can sometimes be quite a challenge.
This paper offers a survey of the most remarkable and important publications and research results, made by both Freemasons as well as scholars.
According to Wichtl, author of 'Weltfreimaurerei – Weltrevolution – Weltrepublik', the Freemason ... more According to Wichtl, author of 'Weltfreimaurerei – Weltrevolution – Weltrepublik', the Freemason was an ‘artificial Jew’, promoted Communism or Bolshevism all over the world and was – through intrigues and manipulations – the main one responsible for the outbreak of war in 1914. The National-Socialist ideology firmly embedded this myth. However, neither did the Nazis nor Wichtl invent this conspiracy theory: references to the Judeo Masonic plot were already made during the Dreyfus Affair in the 1890’s, and much earlier in the 19th century the anti-Masonic discourse already referred to anti-Semitism. This paper analyzes why radical nationalism and anti-Masonry are in line. What arguments are used to describe Freemasonry as anti-nationalist or anti-patriotic? How are these conspiracy theories constructed? And how were they present in the minds and works of two personalities, namely Ernest Jouin in France and Erich Ludendorff in Germany. Both were leading opinion formers in the interwar nationalist discourse and championed the belief in a plot-theory of history.
Liberal Catholic and anti-Mason. The discourse of Amand Neut (1812-1884) against Belgian Freemaso... more Liberal Catholic and anti-Mason. The discourse of Amand Neut (1812-1884) against Belgian Freemasonry and his role at the Catholic Conferences.
In the 1860’s, Belgium was governed by the Liberal Party, leaving the divided Catholic Party in a state of suspense. Two tendencies existed within the latter: the Liberal Catholics were in support of the nation’s Constitution and believed that the freedom of education and association would be in the benefit of Catholicism; they did not want their policies to be controlled by the Church or the bishops. On the other hand, the Ultramontanists renounced the Liberal Constitution and called for the moral and political support of Rome. Both factions however apparently took an unanimous stand at the Catholic Conferences, organized at the city of Mechelen in 1863, 1864 and 1867, where they discussed their strategy against the anti-clerical Liberal government. One of the organizers of these conferences was the Liberal Catholic journalist Amand Neut. At the first conference the ‘Protestants’ and the ‘Liberals’ were generalized as the ‘enemies’ of Catholicism, without giving a clear definition who this enemy really was. Speakers at the second conference called the ‘Liberals’ members of a sect opposing the Catholic faith and at the third and provisional final conference Freemasonry was now ‘officially’ considered as the enemy force behind Liberalism in Belgian politics. Between the second and third conference, Amand Neut published several books with a new approach to Freemasonry: official Masonic documents and leaked correspondence were published, often without additional comments. This technique was soon to be copied abroad; the works of Nicolas Deschamps in France for instance shared the same point of departure. No longer were presuppositions, myths and far-fetched conspiracy theories used to criticize the influence of Freemasonry in society. Neut himself believed that the Belgian Liberals and Freemasons abused the constitutional liberties to sabotage Catholicism. However, after 1870, when the Catholic Party returned to government, Neut never again stepped into the footlight as an anti-Masonic opinion former. The Liberal Catholics were now heavily outnumbered and the influence of Ultramontanism on the Catholic world view in Belgium became dominant.
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Books by Jimmy Koppen
The conference focussed on four themes: social-cultural organizations; performing arts; education; and politics.
Opening speech was given by Mr. Wim Van der Elst, president of the board of the AMVB, followed by a general presentation by Jimmy Koppen, secretary of the board and conference organizator.
The first paper was presented by dr. Eva Schandevyl (Free University Brussels - VUB) on the Stichting-Lodewijk de Raet, a Flemish social-cultural association (est. 1952) that organized adult education. Next was An Macharis, director of Citizenne (successor to the Stichting-Lodewijk de Raet) and spoke about the main challenges of this organization today.
Professor Jaak Van Schoor (Ghent University) analyzed the history of the Royal Flemish Theatre in Brussels from its foundation in the 1870's until today. This paper was completed by Geert Cochez, coordinator of the Brussels Kunstenoverleg (a cultural network that gathers 70 organizations involved in performing arts)
Dr. Rudi Janssens (Free University Brussels - VUB) discussed the genesis of Dutch schools in Brussels and his paper preceded the presentation of Guy Vanhengel, Minister of Education in the Brussels government.
Rik Röttger (PhD-student, Free University Brussels - VUB) talked about the political ideas and policy of 19th-century Mayor Charles Buls. Finally, dr. Roel De Groof (Free University Brussels - VUB) discussed possible perspectives for Brussels as Flemish, Belgian and European capital.
process from 1963 until today in context, the socio-demographic, linguistic and political developments in the communes in question and how they correlated with the facility system, the application of the legislation in practice and related disputes, the attitude of the local authorities concerned, and the impact of the system on the residents themselves in terms of their actual language knowledge and language use. Bart Distelmans, licenciate (Belgian university degree) in Political Science and Communications Studies and contemporary history licentiate Jimmy Koppen, contemporary historian – both of whom had meanwhile obtained support from the Research Foundation Flanders – undertook the research into the political and administrative aspects, and it was agreed with sociologist Rudi Janssens that he would handle the research into language practices in the six facility communes after the Brussels study was completed, because this manner of proceeding would enable him to make comparisons between Brussels and the six facility communes.
Papers by Jimmy Koppen
It is an often heard myth that, as a result of the Episcopal letter of December 28, 1837, Belgian Freemasonry quickly evolved from a philanthropic society to a politically active community. The bishops summoned that each Catholic, active in a Masonic lodge, was obliged to renounce Freemasonry. The Episcopal letter was promulgated shortly after new Masonic lodge was opened in the city of Ghent, in presence of Grand Master Goswin de Stassart – at the same time Liberal politician and Speaker of the Belgian Senate. As a reaction, the faithful Freemasons, surprised by the ban, left their lodges. These were now dominated by anti-clericals like Pierre-Théodore Verhaegen.
Reality, however, is much more complicated. It is not true that anti-clericalism or suspicion toward the clergy was completely absent from early 19th-century Freemasonry. Several incidents occurred: in 1816 for instance the premises of the lodge of Lokeren in the province of East Flanders were startled by a chivari of churchgoers, returning from Sunday service. And in 1819 the clergy of Liège refused to bury the local Worshipful Master in the lodge’s gardens. The foundation, in 1834, of the Université Libre de Bruxelles, initiated by Freemasonry and a straightforward reaction to the Catholic University of Leuven was in fact the most striking example of the existing differences between these two ideologies.
Another assumption is that Belgian Freemasonry formed a whole. But immediately following the nation’s independence in 1830 this was truly not the case. The schism with Dutch Freemasonry caused a trauma and the establishment of the Grand Orient of Belgium in 1833 could not offer a real cure. A younger generation of Freemasons, headed by the already mentioned Verhaegen, took the view that the Masonic lodges should take up their roles as think tanks of Liberalism, just like Catholic Church was the stronghold behind the Catholic Party. But not all Belgian Freemasons followed his example. In Ghent, the Masonic lodge of Le Septentrion stayed under the auspices of the Great East of the Netherlands. The establishment of a new lodge in this city, but now managed by the Grand Orient of Belgium, was in the first place meant to neutralize the local Orangist influence.
The bishops nevertheless took this as an opportunity to step into the limelight to indirectly accuse Freemasonry of political activism. The circular letter itself showed the episcopacy as a unity, but this was only in appearance. The letter actually made clear that the Catholic Church herself was not reticent about taking political action herself. For Freemasons, especially Verhaegen, it represented the living proof that the Catholic Church was indeed a treat to Liberal society and to the freedom of conscience. The ‘masks of the persecutors’ now fell’, like was sung in the Masonic cantata “Les francs-maçons et le clergé belge”. Almost no-one left his lodge because of the ban issued by the Episcopal letter. Rather moderate and conservative Freemasons like de Stassart were forced to step aside. The letter can consequently not be seen as a rift but rather as a highlight in the already stressed relationship between Freemasonry and Catholicism in 19th-century Belgium.
Since the 1970's, Freemasonry as a social phenomenon became part of historial research in Belgium. Already in 1985 Els Witte stated that both Freemasons themselves as historians could benefit from a truly scientific approach. After all, historians and researchers cannot deny or minimize the influence of Freemasonry on secularization in 19th-century Belgium. However, research into Freemasonry requires from the historian to understand the basics of the philosophical, ideological and cultural features of Belgian Freemasonry. He must also realize the complexity of Freemasonry as a social or cultural phenomenon. Moreover, Belgian Freemasonry has rather complicated origins and their points of interest can differ remarkably from Freemasonry abroad. At this moment, the Belgian Masonic lodges are under six different umbrellas, without even mentioning rather suspicious para-Masonic associations or fraternities. All the Masonic lodges can also act autonomously. Therefore Masonic historiography can sometimes be quite a challenge.
This paper offers a survey of the most remarkable and important publications and research results, made by both Freemasons as well as scholars.
In the 1860’s, Belgium was governed by the Liberal Party, leaving the divided Catholic Party in a state of suspense. Two tendencies existed within the latter: the Liberal Catholics were in support of the nation’s Constitution and believed that the freedom of education and association would be in the benefit of Catholicism; they did not want their policies to be controlled by the Church or the bishops. On the other hand, the Ultramontanists renounced the Liberal Constitution and called for the moral and political support of Rome. Both factions however apparently took an unanimous stand at the Catholic Conferences, organized at the city of Mechelen in 1863, 1864 and 1867, where they discussed their strategy against the anti-clerical Liberal government. One of the organizers of these conferences was the Liberal Catholic journalist Amand Neut. At the first conference the ‘Protestants’ and the ‘Liberals’ were generalized as the ‘enemies’ of Catholicism, without giving a clear definition who this enemy really was. Speakers at the second conference called the ‘Liberals’ members of a sect opposing the Catholic faith and at the third and provisional final conference Freemasonry was now ‘officially’ considered as the enemy force behind Liberalism in Belgian politics. Between the second and third conference, Amand Neut published several books with a new approach to Freemasonry: official Masonic documents and leaked correspondence were published, often without additional comments. This technique was soon to be copied abroad; the works of Nicolas Deschamps in France for instance shared the same point of departure. No longer were presuppositions, myths and far-fetched conspiracy theories used to criticize the influence of Freemasonry in society. Neut himself believed that the Belgian Liberals and Freemasons abused the constitutional liberties to sabotage Catholicism. However, after 1870, when the Catholic Party returned to government, Neut never again stepped into the footlight as an anti-Masonic opinion former. The Liberal Catholics were now heavily outnumbered and the influence of Ultramontanism on the Catholic world view in Belgium became dominant.
The conference focussed on four themes: social-cultural organizations; performing arts; education; and politics.
Opening speech was given by Mr. Wim Van der Elst, president of the board of the AMVB, followed by a general presentation by Jimmy Koppen, secretary of the board and conference organizator.
The first paper was presented by dr. Eva Schandevyl (Free University Brussels - VUB) on the Stichting-Lodewijk de Raet, a Flemish social-cultural association (est. 1952) that organized adult education. Next was An Macharis, director of Citizenne (successor to the Stichting-Lodewijk de Raet) and spoke about the main challenges of this organization today.
Professor Jaak Van Schoor (Ghent University) analyzed the history of the Royal Flemish Theatre in Brussels from its foundation in the 1870's until today. This paper was completed by Geert Cochez, coordinator of the Brussels Kunstenoverleg (a cultural network that gathers 70 organizations involved in performing arts)
Dr. Rudi Janssens (Free University Brussels - VUB) discussed the genesis of Dutch schools in Brussels and his paper preceded the presentation of Guy Vanhengel, Minister of Education in the Brussels government.
Rik Röttger (PhD-student, Free University Brussels - VUB) talked about the political ideas and policy of 19th-century Mayor Charles Buls. Finally, dr. Roel De Groof (Free University Brussels - VUB) discussed possible perspectives for Brussels as Flemish, Belgian and European capital.
process from 1963 until today in context, the socio-demographic, linguistic and political developments in the communes in question and how they correlated with the facility system, the application of the legislation in practice and related disputes, the attitude of the local authorities concerned, and the impact of the system on the residents themselves in terms of their actual language knowledge and language use. Bart Distelmans, licenciate (Belgian university degree) in Political Science and Communications Studies and contemporary history licentiate Jimmy Koppen, contemporary historian – both of whom had meanwhile obtained support from the Research Foundation Flanders – undertook the research into the political and administrative aspects, and it was agreed with sociologist Rudi Janssens that he would handle the research into language practices in the six facility communes after the Brussels study was completed, because this manner of proceeding would enable him to make comparisons between Brussels and the six facility communes.
It is an often heard myth that, as a result of the Episcopal letter of December 28, 1837, Belgian Freemasonry quickly evolved from a philanthropic society to a politically active community. The bishops summoned that each Catholic, active in a Masonic lodge, was obliged to renounce Freemasonry. The Episcopal letter was promulgated shortly after new Masonic lodge was opened in the city of Ghent, in presence of Grand Master Goswin de Stassart – at the same time Liberal politician and Speaker of the Belgian Senate. As a reaction, the faithful Freemasons, surprised by the ban, left their lodges. These were now dominated by anti-clericals like Pierre-Théodore Verhaegen.
Reality, however, is much more complicated. It is not true that anti-clericalism or suspicion toward the clergy was completely absent from early 19th-century Freemasonry. Several incidents occurred: in 1816 for instance the premises of the lodge of Lokeren in the province of East Flanders were startled by a chivari of churchgoers, returning from Sunday service. And in 1819 the clergy of Liège refused to bury the local Worshipful Master in the lodge’s gardens. The foundation, in 1834, of the Université Libre de Bruxelles, initiated by Freemasonry and a straightforward reaction to the Catholic University of Leuven was in fact the most striking example of the existing differences between these two ideologies.
Another assumption is that Belgian Freemasonry formed a whole. But immediately following the nation’s independence in 1830 this was truly not the case. The schism with Dutch Freemasonry caused a trauma and the establishment of the Grand Orient of Belgium in 1833 could not offer a real cure. A younger generation of Freemasons, headed by the already mentioned Verhaegen, took the view that the Masonic lodges should take up their roles as think tanks of Liberalism, just like Catholic Church was the stronghold behind the Catholic Party. But not all Belgian Freemasons followed his example. In Ghent, the Masonic lodge of Le Septentrion stayed under the auspices of the Great East of the Netherlands. The establishment of a new lodge in this city, but now managed by the Grand Orient of Belgium, was in the first place meant to neutralize the local Orangist influence.
The bishops nevertheless took this as an opportunity to step into the limelight to indirectly accuse Freemasonry of political activism. The circular letter itself showed the episcopacy as a unity, but this was only in appearance. The letter actually made clear that the Catholic Church herself was not reticent about taking political action herself. For Freemasons, especially Verhaegen, it represented the living proof that the Catholic Church was indeed a treat to Liberal society and to the freedom of conscience. The ‘masks of the persecutors’ now fell’, like was sung in the Masonic cantata “Les francs-maçons et le clergé belge”. Almost no-one left his lodge because of the ban issued by the Episcopal letter. Rather moderate and conservative Freemasons like de Stassart were forced to step aside. The letter can consequently not be seen as a rift but rather as a highlight in the already stressed relationship between Freemasonry and Catholicism in 19th-century Belgium.
Since the 1970's, Freemasonry as a social phenomenon became part of historial research in Belgium. Already in 1985 Els Witte stated that both Freemasons themselves as historians could benefit from a truly scientific approach. After all, historians and researchers cannot deny or minimize the influence of Freemasonry on secularization in 19th-century Belgium. However, research into Freemasonry requires from the historian to understand the basics of the philosophical, ideological and cultural features of Belgian Freemasonry. He must also realize the complexity of Freemasonry as a social or cultural phenomenon. Moreover, Belgian Freemasonry has rather complicated origins and their points of interest can differ remarkably from Freemasonry abroad. At this moment, the Belgian Masonic lodges are under six different umbrellas, without even mentioning rather suspicious para-Masonic associations or fraternities. All the Masonic lodges can also act autonomously. Therefore Masonic historiography can sometimes be quite a challenge.
This paper offers a survey of the most remarkable and important publications and research results, made by both Freemasons as well as scholars.
In the 1860’s, Belgium was governed by the Liberal Party, leaving the divided Catholic Party in a state of suspense. Two tendencies existed within the latter: the Liberal Catholics were in support of the nation’s Constitution and believed that the freedom of education and association would be in the benefit of Catholicism; they did not want their policies to be controlled by the Church or the bishops. On the other hand, the Ultramontanists renounced the Liberal Constitution and called for the moral and political support of Rome. Both factions however apparently took an unanimous stand at the Catholic Conferences, organized at the city of Mechelen in 1863, 1864 and 1867, where they discussed their strategy against the anti-clerical Liberal government. One of the organizers of these conferences was the Liberal Catholic journalist Amand Neut. At the first conference the ‘Protestants’ and the ‘Liberals’ were generalized as the ‘enemies’ of Catholicism, without giving a clear definition who this enemy really was. Speakers at the second conference called the ‘Liberals’ members of a sect opposing the Catholic faith and at the third and provisional final conference Freemasonry was now ‘officially’ considered as the enemy force behind Liberalism in Belgian politics. Between the second and third conference, Amand Neut published several books with a new approach to Freemasonry: official Masonic documents and leaked correspondence were published, often without additional comments. This technique was soon to be copied abroad; the works of Nicolas Deschamps in France for instance shared the same point of departure. No longer were presuppositions, myths and far-fetched conspiracy theories used to criticize the influence of Freemasonry in society. Neut himself believed that the Belgian Liberals and Freemasons abused the constitutional liberties to sabotage Catholicism. However, after 1870, when the Catholic Party returned to government, Neut never again stepped into the footlight as an anti-Masonic opinion former. The Liberal Catholics were now heavily outnumbered and the influence of Ultramontanism on the Catholic world view in Belgium became dominant.