In Ontario, Canada, the regulator approves identical looking slot machine games with different pa... more In Ontario, Canada, the regulator approves identical looking slot machine games with different payback percentages. We gained access to the design documents (called PAR Sheets) used to program these different versions of the same slots game and ran Gambler's Ruin simulations of 2,000 first-time players who each arrived with a $100 bankroll and played either the 85 or 98% version of the same game until broke. Simulations revealed that the typical (median) player's experience did not differ significantly between versions. However the payback percentage affected the experience of players in the upper tails of the distributions with those in the 98% version having dramatically more total spins, winning spins, entries into the "bonus mode", and "hand pays" (a win of $125 or more on a given spin). Most importantly, the number of simulated players who had a maximum peak balance in excess of $1,000 rose tenfold-from 5 in the 85% version to 54 in the 98% version. The results are discussed in terms of the Pathways Model of Problem and Pathological Gambling especially in terms of behavioural conditioning, cognitive beliefs, and early big wins. It may well be that those machines that are on the surface the "fairest" to the gambler, actually pose the most risk for ensuing gambling problems.
Losses disguised as wins (LDWs) are slot machine outcomes where participants bet on multiple line... more Losses disguised as wins (LDWs) are slot machine outcomes where participants bet on multiple lines and win back less than their wager. Despite losing money, the machine celebrates these outcomes with reinforcing sights and sounds. Here, we sought to show that psychophysically and psychologically, participants treat LDWs as wins, but that we could expose LDWs as losses by using negative sounds as feedback. 157 participants were allocated into one of three conditions: a standard sound condition where LDWs, despite being losses, are paired with winning sights and sounds; a silent condition, where LDWs are paired with silence; and a negative sound condition where LDWs and regular losses are both followed by a negative sound. After viewing a paytable, participants conducted 300 spins on a slot machine simulator while heart rate deceleration (HRD) and skin conductance responses (SCRs) were monitored. Participants were then shown 20 different spin outcomes including LDWs and asked whether they had won or lost on that outcome. Participants then estimated on how many spins (out of 300) they won more than they wagered. SCRs were similar for losses and LDWs (both smaller than actual wins). HRD, however, was steeper for both wins and LDWs, compared to losses. In the standard condition, a majority of participants (mis)categorized LDWs as wins, and significantly overestimated the number of times they actually won. In the negative sound condition, this pattern was reversed; most participants correctly categorized LDWs as losses, and they gave high-fidelity win estimates. We conclude that participants both think and physiologically react to LDWs as though they are wins, a miscategorization that misleads them to think that they are winning more often than they actually are. Sound can be used to effectively prevent this misconception and unmask the disguise of LDWs.
Aims In multi-line slot machines, players can wager on more than one line per spin. We sought to ... more Aims In multi-line slot machines, players can wager on more than one line per spin. We sought to show that players preferred multi-line over single-line games, and that certain game features could cause multi-line game play to feel more rewarding. Measurement and Participants Reward was measured using post-reinforcement pauses (PRPs) following each outcome (the time between outcome delivery and the next spin). Gamblers (n = 102) played 250 spins on a 20-line game and 250 spins on a one-line game (answering questions about game experiences following each session). Playing one-line, a small credit gain (e.g. 2 cents) was a net win. In the 20-line game it was a net loss of 18 credits but was still accompanied by 'winning' sights and sounds. Results Most players (94%) preferred the 20-line game. PRPs for small credit gains (net losses) in the 20-line game were equivalent, or larger than in the one-line game where such gains were wins. The largest increase in PRP size was between the 0 and 2 credit conditions for both games. Thus 20-line players reacted as though these net losses of 18 credits were rewarding. Players' estimates of the number of true wins were accurate in the one-line game, but they significantly overestimated the number of true wins in the 20-line game (P < 0.01). Problem gamblers felt more skilful (P < 0.01) and were more absorbed (P < 0.01) by multiline than single-line game play. Conclusions Multi-line games appear to be more appealing to gaming machine ('slots') players than single-line games. These games may be particularly absorbing for those with gambling problems.
Unfortunately there is an error in the percentages in paragraph 5 of the discussion section. The ... more Unfortunately there is an error in the percentages in paragraph 5 of the discussion section. The corrected paragraph is given below. In the sound-off condition, players on average estimated that they won 33 times when in reality they were only exposed to 28 wins (thus, on average they overestimate by 5 (i.e., 18 %) the number of times they won). Crucially, this propensity to overestimate these wins is exacerbated when sounds accompany the losses disguised as wins. In this sound-on condition, players estimated that they won on average 36 times (an overestimation of 8 (i.e., 29 %)).
Multiline slot machines allow for a unique outcome type referred to as a loss disguised as a win ... more Multiline slot machines allow for a unique outcome type referred to as a loss disguised as a win (LDW). An LDW occurs when a player gains credits on a spin, but fewer credits than their original wager (e.g. 15-cent gain on a 20-cent wager). These outcomes alter the gambler's play experience by providing frequent, albeit smaller, credit gains throughout a playing session that are in fact net losses. Despite this negative overall value, research has shown that players physiologically respond to LDWs as if they are wins, not losses. These outcomes also create a ''smoother'' experience for the player that seems to promote a highly absorbing, flow-like state that we have called ''dark flow''. Past research has indicated that there may be a relationship between problem gambling status and dark flow, as well as between dark flow, depression, and gambling expectancies. In this study, we sought to further understand these relationships, while examining the influence of LDWs on game preference in the context of single versus multiline slots play. We used a realistic slot machine simulator equipped with a force transducer to measure how hard players pressed the spin button following different outcomes. This measure of arousal showed that LDWs were treated similarly to small wins. Participants overwhelmingly preferred the multiline game and experienced more positive affect while playing it, compared to the single-line game. Problem gambling severity index scores were related to dark flow in both games, but this relationship was stronger for the multiline game. Additionally, depression symptomatology and dark flow were strongly correlated in the multiline game, with significant relationships between depression and gambling expectancy, and gambling expectancy and dark flow ratings also emerging.
Reinforcement is a key component of slot machine play. Multi-line video slot-machine play can lea... more Reinforcement is a key component of slot machine play. Multi-line video slot-machine play can lead to &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot;losses disguised as wins&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot; (LDWs) which are credit gains that total less than the wager on the spin. LDWs only occur on multi-line games, with their frequency increasing with the number of lines played. If perceived as wins, they will be reinforcing to the player despite actually being losses. It has been suggested that players may attempt to maximize their reinforcement rates by playing maximum lines with a minimum bet per line. We recorded the actual game play of 83 participants on two different machines having different LDW rates. On both machines, players, regardless of problem gambling status, seldom bet on a single line (&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;lt;6 % of spins), preferring to bet on the maximum number of lines available (&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;gt;70 % of spins). Post-reinforcement pauses indicated that players found LDWs significantly more rewarding than losses and as rewarding as small wins. Players significantly overestimated the number of times they won more than their spin wager (i.e., miscategorizing LDWs as wins). Players indicated a number of game traits that made them prefer one machine over the other. Players who preferred the game with many LDWs endorsed &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot;lack of long losing streaks&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot; and &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot;frequency of wins&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot; to a greater degree than those preferring the other game. In sum, gamblers prefer playing maximum lines. Maximum line-play increases the frequency of LDWs. Players may miscategorize LDWs as wins, thus increasing the perceived reinforcement rate of multi-line slot machine.
Slot machines are a very popular form of gambling in which a small proportion of gamblers experie... more Slot machines are a very popular form of gambling in which a small proportion of gamblers experience gambling-related problems. These players refer to a trance-like state that researchers have labelled ‘dark flow’—a pleasurable, but maladaptive state where players become completely occupied by the game. We assessed 110 gamblers for mindfulness (using the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale), gambling problems (using the Problem Gambling Severity Index), depressive symptoms (using the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale), and boredom proneness (using the Boredom Proneness Scale). Participants played both a multiline and single-line slot machine simulator and were occasionally interrupted with thought probes to assess whether they were thinking about the game or something else. After playing each game, we retrospectively assessed dark flow and affect during play. Our key results were that the number of “on-game” reports during the multiline game were significantly higher than the sing...
Playing video games to escape daily life is associated with problem video gaming and depression. ... more Playing video games to escape daily life is associated with problem video gaming and depression. Playing to escape is an especially common motive among players of role-playing games (RPGs). Given that RPGs are highly immersive, a possible source of positive affect for depressed escape players may be the rewarding aspects of flow or immersion. We aimed to ascertain whether players who report gaming to escape are more prone to experiencing flow while playing RPGs but not arcade-type platform games. In Experiment 1, we measured the depression symptoms and player motives of 56 participants while they played an RPG. We measured subjective arousal, flow, and positive affect after each condition of an ABBA design (A was a control condition featuring a simplified game, B the fully immersive game). In Experiment 2, we recruited 65 players to play a simple platform game (also measuring problem video gaming and mindfulness). In both studies, we contrasted those in the upper tercile of escape m...
Previous research suggests that intuitively appealing, yet uninformative unclaimed prize informat... more Previous research suggests that intuitively appealing, yet uninformative unclaimed prize information is capable of biasing gamblingrelated judgments when people compare scratch cards that vary in the number of unclaimed prizes. However, it is unknown if the mere presence of unclaimed prize information alters a game's attractiveness. Using an online crowdsourcing platform, we recruited 402 U.S. residents to participate in an online study. In a withinsubjects design, participants made four gambling-related judgments (likelihood of winning, excitement to play, urge to gamble, and hypothetical card purchasing) for scratch cards presented with and without unclaimed prize information. Compared to cards presented without unclaimed prize information, those with unclaimed prize information were judged as more likely to win, produced more excitement to play, a greater urge to gamble, and were chosen more often during a hypothetical purchasing task. Therefore, unclaimed prize information increases the appeal of scratch card games, and may be an important aspect of the scratch card gambling environment to consider from a harm reduction perspective.
The Alberta Gambling Research Institute and the University of Lethbridge co-sponsored the fourtee... more The Alberta Gambling Research Institute and the University of Lethbridge co-sponsored the fourteenth in a series of special interest conferences in the area of gambling studies. The conference theme was "Critical Issues in Gambling Research." The conference took place Friday, March 27, & Saturday, March 28, 2015 at the Banff Centre.
Losses disguised as wins (LDWs) are slot machine outcomes where players gain fewer credits than t... more Losses disguised as wins (LDWs) are slot machine outcomes where players gain fewer credits than they wager. Despite being losses, slot machines celebrate LDWs with positive sounds and animations, leading gamblers to respond to them as wins. It is unknown how manipulating the sound following LDWs may influence gamblers’ behaviour. In Experiment 1, participants played two conditions on a realistic slot machine simulator: a (standard) positive sound condition (LDWs paired with positive sound, losses paired with silence), and a negative sound condition (LDWs and losses paired with negative sound). We measured participants’ behavioural responses [post-reinforcement pauses (PRPs)], win estimates, and subjective experience. In the negative sound condition, participants behaviourally responded to LDWs in a more loss-like and less win-like fashion, as measured by PRPs. Win estimates were reduced, and subjective experience was significantly impacted, but only when the negative sound condition...
The domain of gambling is rife with both diagnostic and non-diagnostic information. Previous stud... more The domain of gambling is rife with both diagnostic and non-diagnostic information. Previous studies examining scratch card gambling have demonstrated that people are often biased by intuitively appealing, yet non-diagnostic information (i.e., unclaimed prize information). The current study investigated how varying the presentation format of a diagnostic piece of information (i.e., payback percentage) could influence participants' use of this information when in conflict with unclaimed prize information. We hypothesized that when payback percentage information was presented in a graphical, as opposed to a numerical format, participants would be better at ignoring unclaimed prize information and correspondingly have their preferences become congruent with the true value of the presented scratch cards. In Experiment 1 (N = 201), with payback percentage presented in a numerical format, participants displayed a non-optimal preference for cards with greater numbers of unclaimed prizes and lower payback percentages. This preference was reversed in Experiment 2 (N = 201) when payback percentage was presented in a graphical format. In conclusion, the results of the current study demonstrate how judgments in a scratch card gambling domain can be improved by simply changing the presentation format of a single piece of information.
ABSTRACT Problem gamblers often have distorted beliefs about gambling, including illusion of cont... more ABSTRACT Problem gamblers often have distorted beliefs about gambling, including illusion of control and gambler&#39;s fallacy. Most multiline slots games allow players to adjust the number of wagered paylines and the amount bet per line, and over time this control may support incorrect conclusions and promote distorted gambling beliefs. We created software to run simulations of a popular multiline slots game and examined the effects of betting on single versus multiple paylines. Simultaneous multiline betting tends to produce a less varied gambling experience because it increases the frequency of legitimate wins and ‘losses disguised as wins’, while decreasing the occurrence of ‘big wins’. It also shortens consecutive series of losing spins and it prolongs the time a typical player takes to exhaust funds. Indirect control over losing streaks may give some players the false impression that they can play skilfully and predict the occurrence of wins. However, applying five different wagering strategies in our simulations showed that none had any real effect on the average percentage of wagers that would be ‘paid back’ to players as prizes. Player control over multiline slots games may lead frequent gamblers to incorrect conclusions that sustain excessive play despite recurring losses.
Losses disguised as wins (LDWs) are slot machine outcomes where participants bet on multiple line... more Losses disguised as wins (LDWs) are slot machine outcomes where participants bet on multiple lines and win back less than their wager. Despite losing money, the machine celebrates these outcomes with reinforcing sights and sounds. Here, we sought to show that psychophysically and psychologically, participants treat LDWs as wins, but that we could expose LDWs as losses by using negative sounds as feedback. 157 participants were allocated into one of three conditions: a standard sound condition where LDWs, despite being losses, are paired with winning sights and sounds; a silent condition, where LDWs are paired with silence; and a negative sound condition where LDWs and regular losses are both followed by a negative sound. After viewing a paytable, participants conducted 300 spins on a slot machine simulator while heart rate deceleration (HRD) and skin conductance responses (SCRs) were monitored. Participants were then shown 20 different spin outcomes including LDWs and asked whether they had won or lost on that outcome. Participants then estimated on how many spins (out of 300) they won more than they wagered. SCRs were similar for losses and LDWs (both smaller than actual wins). HRD, however, was steeper for both wins and LDWs, compared to losses. In the standard condition, a majority of participants (mis)categorized LDWs as wins, and significantly overestimated the number of times they actually won. In the negative sound condition, this pattern was reversed; most participants correctly categorized LDWs as losses, and they gave high-fidelity win estimates. We conclude that participants both think and physiologically react to LDWs as though they are wins, a miscategorization that misleads them to think that they are winning more often than they actually are. Sound can be used to effectively prevent this misconception and unmask the disguise of LDWs.
Slot machine wins and losses have distinctive, measurable, physiological effects on players. The ... more Slot machine wins and losses have distinctive, measurable, physiological effects on players. The contributing factors to these effects remain under-explored. We believe that sound is one of these key contributing factors. Sound plays an important role in reinforcement, and thus on arousal level and stress response of players. It is the use of sound for positive reinforcement in particular that we believe influences the player. In the current study, we investigate the role that sound plays in psychophysical responses to slot machine play. A total of 96 gamblers played a slot machine simulator with and without sound being paired with reinforcement. Skin conductance responses and heart rate, as well as subjective judgments about the gambling experience were examined. The results showed that the sound influenced the arousal of participants both psychophysically and psychologically. The sound also influenced players' preferences, with the majority of players preferring to play slot machines that were accompanied by winning sounds. The sounds also caused players to significantly overestimate the number of times they won while playing the slot machine.
In Ontario, Canada, the regulator approves identical looking slot machine games with different pa... more In Ontario, Canada, the regulator approves identical looking slot machine games with different payback percentages. We gained access to the design documents (called PAR Sheets) used to program these different versions of the same slots game and ran Gambler&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;s Ruin simulations of 2,000 first-time players who each arrived with a $100 bankroll and played either the 85 or 98% version of the same game until broke. Simulations revealed that the typical (median) player&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;s experience did not differ significantly between versions. However the payback percentage affected the experience of players in the upper tails of the distributions with those in the 98% version having dramatically more total spins, winning spins, entries into the &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot;bonus mode&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot;, and &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot;hand pays&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot; (a win of $125 or more on a given spin). Most importantly, the number of simulated players who had a maximum peak balance in excess of $1,000 rose tenfold-from 5 in the 85% version to 54 in the 98% version. The results are discussed in terms of the Pathways Model of Problem and Pathological Gambling especially in terms of behavioural conditioning, cognitive beliefs, and early big wins. It may well be that those machines that are on the surface the &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot;fairest&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot; to the gambler, actually pose the most risk for ensuing gambling problems.
Losses disguised as wins (LDWs) are slot machine outcomes where participants bet on multiple line... more Losses disguised as wins (LDWs) are slot machine outcomes where participants bet on multiple lines and win back less than their wager. Despite losing money, the machine celebrates these outcomes with reinforcing sights and sounds. Here, we sought to show that psychophysically and psychologically, participants treat LDWs as wins, but that we could expose LDWs as losses by using negative sounds as feedback. 157 participants were allocated into one of three conditions: a standard sound condition where LDWs, despite being losses, are paired with winning sights and sounds; a silent condition, where LDWs are paired with silence; and a negative sound condition where LDWs and regular losses are both followed by a negative sound. After viewing a paytable, participants conducted 300 spins on a slot machine simulator while heart rate deceleration (HRD) and skin conductance responses (SCRs) were monitored. Participants were then shown 20 different spin outcomes including LDWs and asked whether they had won or lost on that outcome. Participants then estimated on how many spins (out of 300) they won more than they wagered. SCRs were similar for losses and LDWs (both smaller than actual wins). HRD, however, was steeper for both wins and LDWs, compared to losses. In the standard condition, a majority of participants (mis)categorized LDWs as wins, and significantly overestimated the number of times they actually won. In the negative sound condition, this pattern was reversed; most participants correctly categorized LDWs as losses, and they gave high-fidelity win estimates. We conclude that participants both think and physiologically react to LDWs as though they are wins, a miscategorization that misleads them to think that they are winning more often than they actually are. Sound can be used to effectively prevent this misconception and unmask the disguise of LDWs.
Aims In multi-line slot machines, players can wager on more than one line per spin. We sought to ... more Aims In multi-line slot machines, players can wager on more than one line per spin. We sought to show that players preferred multi-line over single-line games, and that certain game features could cause multi-line game play to feel more rewarding. Measurement and Participants Reward was measured using post-reinforcement pauses (PRPs) following each outcome (the time between outcome delivery and the next spin). Gamblers (n = 102) played 250 spins on a 20-line game and 250 spins on a one-line game (answering questions about game experiences following each session). Playing one-line, a small credit gain (e.g. 2 cents) was a net win. In the 20-line game it was a net loss of 18 credits but was still accompanied by 'winning' sights and sounds. Results Most players (94%) preferred the 20-line game. PRPs for small credit gains (net losses) in the 20-line game were equivalent, or larger than in the one-line game where such gains were wins. The largest increase in PRP size was between the 0 and 2 credit conditions for both games. Thus 20-line players reacted as though these net losses of 18 credits were rewarding. Players' estimates of the number of true wins were accurate in the one-line game, but they significantly overestimated the number of true wins in the 20-line game (P < 0.01). Problem gamblers felt more skilful (P < 0.01) and were more absorbed (P < 0.01) by multiline than single-line game play. Conclusions Multi-line games appear to be more appealing to gaming machine ('slots') players than single-line games. These games may be particularly absorbing for those with gambling problems.
Unfortunately there is an error in the percentages in paragraph 5 of the discussion section. The ... more Unfortunately there is an error in the percentages in paragraph 5 of the discussion section. The corrected paragraph is given below. In the sound-off condition, players on average estimated that they won 33 times when in reality they were only exposed to 28 wins (thus, on average they overestimate by 5 (i.e., 18 %) the number of times they won). Crucially, this propensity to overestimate these wins is exacerbated when sounds accompany the losses disguised as wins. In this sound-on condition, players estimated that they won on average 36 times (an overestimation of 8 (i.e., 29 %)).
Multiline slot machines allow for a unique outcome type referred to as a loss disguised as a win ... more Multiline slot machines allow for a unique outcome type referred to as a loss disguised as a win (LDW). An LDW occurs when a player gains credits on a spin, but fewer credits than their original wager (e.g. 15-cent gain on a 20-cent wager). These outcomes alter the gambler's play experience by providing frequent, albeit smaller, credit gains throughout a playing session that are in fact net losses. Despite this negative overall value, research has shown that players physiologically respond to LDWs as if they are wins, not losses. These outcomes also create a ''smoother'' experience for the player that seems to promote a highly absorbing, flow-like state that we have called ''dark flow''. Past research has indicated that there may be a relationship between problem gambling status and dark flow, as well as between dark flow, depression, and gambling expectancies. In this study, we sought to further understand these relationships, while examining the influence of LDWs on game preference in the context of single versus multiline slots play. We used a realistic slot machine simulator equipped with a force transducer to measure how hard players pressed the spin button following different outcomes. This measure of arousal showed that LDWs were treated similarly to small wins. Participants overwhelmingly preferred the multiline game and experienced more positive affect while playing it, compared to the single-line game. Problem gambling severity index scores were related to dark flow in both games, but this relationship was stronger for the multiline game. Additionally, depression symptomatology and dark flow were strongly correlated in the multiline game, with significant relationships between depression and gambling expectancy, and gambling expectancy and dark flow ratings also emerging.
Reinforcement is a key component of slot machine play. Multi-line video slot-machine play can lea... more Reinforcement is a key component of slot machine play. Multi-line video slot-machine play can lead to &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot;losses disguised as wins&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot; (LDWs) which are credit gains that total less than the wager on the spin. LDWs only occur on multi-line games, with their frequency increasing with the number of lines played. If perceived as wins, they will be reinforcing to the player despite actually being losses. It has been suggested that players may attempt to maximize their reinforcement rates by playing maximum lines with a minimum bet per line. We recorded the actual game play of 83 participants on two different machines having different LDW rates. On both machines, players, regardless of problem gambling status, seldom bet on a single line (&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;lt;6 % of spins), preferring to bet on the maximum number of lines available (&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;gt;70 % of spins). Post-reinforcement pauses indicated that players found LDWs significantly more rewarding than losses and as rewarding as small wins. Players significantly overestimated the number of times they won more than their spin wager (i.e., miscategorizing LDWs as wins). Players indicated a number of game traits that made them prefer one machine over the other. Players who preferred the game with many LDWs endorsed &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot;lack of long losing streaks&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot; and &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot;frequency of wins&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot; to a greater degree than those preferring the other game. In sum, gamblers prefer playing maximum lines. Maximum line-play increases the frequency of LDWs. Players may miscategorize LDWs as wins, thus increasing the perceived reinforcement rate of multi-line slot machine.
Slot machines are a very popular form of gambling in which a small proportion of gamblers experie... more Slot machines are a very popular form of gambling in which a small proportion of gamblers experience gambling-related problems. These players refer to a trance-like state that researchers have labelled ‘dark flow’—a pleasurable, but maladaptive state where players become completely occupied by the game. We assessed 110 gamblers for mindfulness (using the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale), gambling problems (using the Problem Gambling Severity Index), depressive symptoms (using the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale), and boredom proneness (using the Boredom Proneness Scale). Participants played both a multiline and single-line slot machine simulator and were occasionally interrupted with thought probes to assess whether they were thinking about the game or something else. After playing each game, we retrospectively assessed dark flow and affect during play. Our key results were that the number of “on-game” reports during the multiline game were significantly higher than the sing...
Playing video games to escape daily life is associated with problem video gaming and depression. ... more Playing video games to escape daily life is associated with problem video gaming and depression. Playing to escape is an especially common motive among players of role-playing games (RPGs). Given that RPGs are highly immersive, a possible source of positive affect for depressed escape players may be the rewarding aspects of flow or immersion. We aimed to ascertain whether players who report gaming to escape are more prone to experiencing flow while playing RPGs but not arcade-type platform games. In Experiment 1, we measured the depression symptoms and player motives of 56 participants while they played an RPG. We measured subjective arousal, flow, and positive affect after each condition of an ABBA design (A was a control condition featuring a simplified game, B the fully immersive game). In Experiment 2, we recruited 65 players to play a simple platform game (also measuring problem video gaming and mindfulness). In both studies, we contrasted those in the upper tercile of escape m...
Previous research suggests that intuitively appealing, yet uninformative unclaimed prize informat... more Previous research suggests that intuitively appealing, yet uninformative unclaimed prize information is capable of biasing gamblingrelated judgments when people compare scratch cards that vary in the number of unclaimed prizes. However, it is unknown if the mere presence of unclaimed prize information alters a game's attractiveness. Using an online crowdsourcing platform, we recruited 402 U.S. residents to participate in an online study. In a withinsubjects design, participants made four gambling-related judgments (likelihood of winning, excitement to play, urge to gamble, and hypothetical card purchasing) for scratch cards presented with and without unclaimed prize information. Compared to cards presented without unclaimed prize information, those with unclaimed prize information were judged as more likely to win, produced more excitement to play, a greater urge to gamble, and were chosen more often during a hypothetical purchasing task. Therefore, unclaimed prize information increases the appeal of scratch card games, and may be an important aspect of the scratch card gambling environment to consider from a harm reduction perspective.
The Alberta Gambling Research Institute and the University of Lethbridge co-sponsored the fourtee... more The Alberta Gambling Research Institute and the University of Lethbridge co-sponsored the fourteenth in a series of special interest conferences in the area of gambling studies. The conference theme was "Critical Issues in Gambling Research." The conference took place Friday, March 27, & Saturday, March 28, 2015 at the Banff Centre.
Losses disguised as wins (LDWs) are slot machine outcomes where players gain fewer credits than t... more Losses disguised as wins (LDWs) are slot machine outcomes where players gain fewer credits than they wager. Despite being losses, slot machines celebrate LDWs with positive sounds and animations, leading gamblers to respond to them as wins. It is unknown how manipulating the sound following LDWs may influence gamblers’ behaviour. In Experiment 1, participants played two conditions on a realistic slot machine simulator: a (standard) positive sound condition (LDWs paired with positive sound, losses paired with silence), and a negative sound condition (LDWs and losses paired with negative sound). We measured participants’ behavioural responses [post-reinforcement pauses (PRPs)], win estimates, and subjective experience. In the negative sound condition, participants behaviourally responded to LDWs in a more loss-like and less win-like fashion, as measured by PRPs. Win estimates were reduced, and subjective experience was significantly impacted, but only when the negative sound condition...
The domain of gambling is rife with both diagnostic and non-diagnostic information. Previous stud... more The domain of gambling is rife with both diagnostic and non-diagnostic information. Previous studies examining scratch card gambling have demonstrated that people are often biased by intuitively appealing, yet non-diagnostic information (i.e., unclaimed prize information). The current study investigated how varying the presentation format of a diagnostic piece of information (i.e., payback percentage) could influence participants' use of this information when in conflict with unclaimed prize information. We hypothesized that when payback percentage information was presented in a graphical, as opposed to a numerical format, participants would be better at ignoring unclaimed prize information and correspondingly have their preferences become congruent with the true value of the presented scratch cards. In Experiment 1 (N = 201), with payback percentage presented in a numerical format, participants displayed a non-optimal preference for cards with greater numbers of unclaimed prizes and lower payback percentages. This preference was reversed in Experiment 2 (N = 201) when payback percentage was presented in a graphical format. In conclusion, the results of the current study demonstrate how judgments in a scratch card gambling domain can be improved by simply changing the presentation format of a single piece of information.
ABSTRACT Problem gamblers often have distorted beliefs about gambling, including illusion of cont... more ABSTRACT Problem gamblers often have distorted beliefs about gambling, including illusion of control and gambler&#39;s fallacy. Most multiline slots games allow players to adjust the number of wagered paylines and the amount bet per line, and over time this control may support incorrect conclusions and promote distorted gambling beliefs. We created software to run simulations of a popular multiline slots game and examined the effects of betting on single versus multiple paylines. Simultaneous multiline betting tends to produce a less varied gambling experience because it increases the frequency of legitimate wins and ‘losses disguised as wins’, while decreasing the occurrence of ‘big wins’. It also shortens consecutive series of losing spins and it prolongs the time a typical player takes to exhaust funds. Indirect control over losing streaks may give some players the false impression that they can play skilfully and predict the occurrence of wins. However, applying five different wagering strategies in our simulations showed that none had any real effect on the average percentage of wagers that would be ‘paid back’ to players as prizes. Player control over multiline slots games may lead frequent gamblers to incorrect conclusions that sustain excessive play despite recurring losses.
Losses disguised as wins (LDWs) are slot machine outcomes where participants bet on multiple line... more Losses disguised as wins (LDWs) are slot machine outcomes where participants bet on multiple lines and win back less than their wager. Despite losing money, the machine celebrates these outcomes with reinforcing sights and sounds. Here, we sought to show that psychophysically and psychologically, participants treat LDWs as wins, but that we could expose LDWs as losses by using negative sounds as feedback. 157 participants were allocated into one of three conditions: a standard sound condition where LDWs, despite being losses, are paired with winning sights and sounds; a silent condition, where LDWs are paired with silence; and a negative sound condition where LDWs and regular losses are both followed by a negative sound. After viewing a paytable, participants conducted 300 spins on a slot machine simulator while heart rate deceleration (HRD) and skin conductance responses (SCRs) were monitored. Participants were then shown 20 different spin outcomes including LDWs and asked whether they had won or lost on that outcome. Participants then estimated on how many spins (out of 300) they won more than they wagered. SCRs were similar for losses and LDWs (both smaller than actual wins). HRD, however, was steeper for both wins and LDWs, compared to losses. In the standard condition, a majority of participants (mis)categorized LDWs as wins, and significantly overestimated the number of times they actually won. In the negative sound condition, this pattern was reversed; most participants correctly categorized LDWs as losses, and they gave high-fidelity win estimates. We conclude that participants both think and physiologically react to LDWs as though they are wins, a miscategorization that misleads them to think that they are winning more often than they actually are. Sound can be used to effectively prevent this misconception and unmask the disguise of LDWs.
Slot machine wins and losses have distinctive, measurable, physiological effects on players. The ... more Slot machine wins and losses have distinctive, measurable, physiological effects on players. The contributing factors to these effects remain under-explored. We believe that sound is one of these key contributing factors. Sound plays an important role in reinforcement, and thus on arousal level and stress response of players. It is the use of sound for positive reinforcement in particular that we believe influences the player. In the current study, we investigate the role that sound plays in psychophysical responses to slot machine play. A total of 96 gamblers played a slot machine simulator with and without sound being paired with reinforcement. Skin conductance responses and heart rate, as well as subjective judgments about the gambling experience were examined. The results showed that the sound influenced the arousal of participants both psychophysically and psychologically. The sound also influenced players' preferences, with the majority of players preferring to play slot machines that were accompanied by winning sounds. The sounds also caused players to significantly overestimate the number of times they won while playing the slot machine.
Uploads
Papers by Mike Dixon