Papers by Karin Fikkers
Journal of Children and Media
Previous research suggests that empathy could serve as a mediator in the relation between media v... more Previous research suggests that empathy could serve as a mediator in the relation between media violence exposure and social behavior (i.e., aggressive and prosocial behavior). However, conceptualizations of empathy are diverse and empirical findings are mixed. Theory as well as previous research suggests that sympathy, more than empathy, may explain how media violence can affect youths' aggressive or prosocial behavior. The present study formally tests this assumption using a three-wave longitudinal design with 878 early adolescents. Although neither sympathy nor empathy provided a significant indirect pathway between media violence and social behavior, the findings do show that sympathy is more strongly related to media violence and social behavior than empathy Methodological challenges and suggestions for future research are discussed.
Communication Research, Mar 17, 2019
The effect of teens' exposure to televised aggression depends on the characteristics of the viewe... more The effect of teens' exposure to televised aggression depends on the characteristics of the viewer and the portrayed aggression. However, few studies have investigated which teens prefer what forms of televised aggression. Therefore, this study investigated how teens' trait aggression and sex guide their preferences for types (physical, verbal, and indirect) and contextual features of televised aggression (reward, punishment, justification, graphicness, realism, and humor). A linkage analysis combined survey data of 156 teens (balanced for trait aggression and sex, age 10-14 years) with a content analysis of 4,839 scenes from their favorite television programs. Aggressive teens preferred more physical aggression than less aggressive teens. Trait aggression was not related to preferences for contextual features of aggression. Boys preferred more physical aggression than girls, as well as more realistic, graphic, justified, rewarded, and punished aggression. This study underscores the importance of distinguishing between different viewers and forms of televised aggression.
Media Psychology, Apr 30, 2019
Cognitive, emotional, and arousal responses to media content stem from two sources of variation: ... more Cognitive, emotional, and arousal responses to media content stem from two sources of variation: differences in content and differences between individuals. Although the first source of variation (content effects) has been well-studied, individual differences (person effects) in responses to media are investigated much less within communication science. To help build this comparatively thin area of scholarship, this study investigated how four theoretically relevant variables (need for cognition, affective empathy, sensation seeking, and sensory processing sensitivity) affected responses to positively and negatively valenced media entertainment. In a withinsubjects design, 243 youth aged 7-15 years (49.4% female) responded to a positive and negative film clip using both selfreported and physiological measures (heart rate and skin conductance), while parents reported on individual differences. Multilevel analysis was used to distinguish between media content effects and individual differences in responses. Results showed that more variation in responses was due to differences between participants than to differences between stimuli. However, need for cognition, affective empathy, sensation seeking, and sensory processing sensitivity did not significantly explain this between-participant variation in responses. Several conceptual and methodological take-aways are offered to advance our understanding of the relationships between stable individual differences and state responses to media. Most media researchers acknowledge that individual differences exist in media users' selection of, responses to, and effects of media content (Krcmar, 2009; Oliver & Krakowiak, 2009). Inspired by Uses and Gratifications (Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch, 1973) and Selective Exposure theory (Knobloch-Westerwick, 2015), decades of research have shown that media users have different needs which result in differential patterns of
Journal of Communication, Feb 26, 2019
This study investigated the longitudinal relationship between children's digital game use and flu... more This study investigated the longitudinal relationship between children's digital game use and fluid and crystallized intelligence. Specifically, this study examined whether digital games affect children's fluid and crystallized intelligence (an effects perspective), whether children with higher levels of fluid or crystallized intelligence are more attracted to digital games (a selection perspective), or whether evidence supports a reciprocal relationship between digital game play and intelligence. Using data from 934 children aged 3 to 7 years (52% girls) across four waves with one-year intervals, our evidence for fluid intelligence indicates partial support for the effects perspective and no support for the selection perspective. For crystallized intelligence, our findings did not reveal any significant relationship with digital game use. The results suggest that digital games can move the needle for fluid intelligence, but more insight is needed to identify how this effect occurs, in which situations, and for which children this is most likely.
Computers in Human Behavior
Computers in Human Behavior, 2016
In this paper, we use logistic regression modelling to predict the English benefactive alternatio... more In this paper, we use logistic regression modelling to predict the English benefactive alternation (He baked me a cake vs. He baked a cake for me). We developed a data set consisting of 107 instances in adult writing and 36 in the writing of 8-to-12-year-olds, and annotated them with 13 syntactic, semantic and discourse features. We show that a model trained and tested on the adult data reaches a prediction accuracy of 86.9%. Due to the small number of data instances, our model includes only 4 significant effects and shows considerable overfit (reaching 79.6% accuracy in a ten-fold cross-validation setting). The regression coefficients found are similar to those found in the model for the to-dative alternation (Bresnan et al. 2007). When applying the adult model to the instances in child writing, 80.6% is predicted correctly. We conclude that there are no indications of major differences either between the to-dative and benefactive alternation in adult language, nor between the bene...
This study investigated the role of a social context variable, perceived peer norms, in the
rela... more This study investigated the role of a social context variable, perceived peer norms, in the
relationship between media violence exposure and adolescents’ aggressive behavior. This was
informed by a need to better understand whether, how, and for whom media violence
exposure may affect aggression. Three hypotheses were tested with peer norms as moderator,
as mediator, and as both moderator and mediator in the relationship between media violence
and aggression. A two-wave longitudinal survey measured media violence exposure,
perceived descriptive and injunctive norms, and aggressive behavior among 943 adolescents
(aged 10 to 14, 50.4% girls). Results provided support only for the moderated-mediation
model. The indirect effect of media violence on aggression via perceived peer approval of
aggression (i.e., injunctive norms) was moderated by perceived prevalence of peer aggression
(i.e., descriptive norms). Specifically, media violence indirectly increased aggressive behavior
for adolescents who perceived more peer aggression, but decreased aggression for adolescents
who perceived less peer aggression. Implications for future research into media violence
effects are discussed.
Media Psychology (in press)
This study investigated the role of a social context variable, perceived peer norms, in the relat... more This study investigated the role of a social context variable, perceived peer norms, in the relationship between media violence exposure and adolescents’ aggressive behavior. This was informed by a need to better understand whether, how, and for whom media violence exposure may affect aggression. Three hypotheses were tested with peer norms as moderator, as mediator, and as both moderator and mediator in the relationship between media violence and aggression. A two-wave longitudinal survey measured media violence exposure,
perceived descriptive and injunctive norms, and aggressive behavior among 943 adolescents (aged 10 to 14, 50.4% girls). Results provided support only for the moderated-mediation
model. The indirect effect of media violence on aggression via perceived peer approval of aggression (i.e., injunctive norms) was moderated by perceived prevalence of peer aggression
(i.e., descriptive norms). Specifically, media violence indirectly increased aggressive behavior for adolescents who perceived more peer aggression, but decreased aggression for adolescents who perceived less peer aggression. Implications for future research into media violence effects are discussed.
Communication Research (in press)
This study evaluated whether common self-report measures of television and game violence exposure... more This study evaluated whether common self-report measures of television and game violence exposure represent reliable and valid measurement tools. Three self-report measures – direct estimates, user-rated favorites, and agency-rated favorites – were assessed in terms of test-retest reliability, criterion validity (their relationship with coded media diaries), and construct validity (their relationship with aggression and gender). A total of 238 adolescents participated in a two-wave survey and completed two media diaries. For game violence, the three self-report measures were reliable and valid. For television violence, only direct estimates achieved test-retest reliability and construct validity. Criterion validity could not be established for the television violence measures because the media diary was not a valid criterion for television violence. Our findings indicate that both direct estimates and favorites are valid measures for game violence, whereas for television violence only direct estimates are valid. We conclude with a discussion about ways to further improve upon and reconceptualize media violence exposure measurement.
This study evaluated whether common self-report measures of television and game violence exposure... more This study evaluated whether common self-report measures of television and game violence exposure represent reliable and valid measurement tools. Three self-report measures – direct estimates, user-rated favorites, and agency-rated favorites – were assessed in terms of test-retest reliability, criterion validity (their relationship with coded media diaries), and construct validity (their relationship with aggression and gender). A total of 238 adolescents participated in a two-wave survey and completed two media diaries. For game violence, the three self-report measures were reliable and valid. For television violence, only direct estimates achieved test-retest reliability and construct validity. Criterion validity could not be established for the television violence measures because the media diary was not a valid criterion for television violence. Our findings indicate that both direct estimates and favorites are valid measures for game violence, whereas for television violence only direct estimates are valid. We conclude with a discussion about ways to further improve upon and reconceptualize media violence exposure measurement.
Fictional narratives can have strong effects on people's real world opinions, attitudes, and beha... more Fictional narratives can have strong effects on people's real world opinions, attitudes, and behavior. Given the far-reaching implications these effects may have, understanding when and how narratives can have such effects is important. One frequent claim about narrative impact is that stories can disable people's ability to critically evaluate the issue. In an experiment, optimal conditions were created to assess whether readers came up with issue-relevant thoughts and to what extent such thoughts influenced the participants’ attitude. The impact of issue-relevant thoughts was compared to that of another mechanism of narrative persuasion: identification. Participants (N = 138) read a story including a discussion scene on a personally relevant issue. The manipulation consisted of the main character being in favor of or against a certain issue. Participants identified more strongly with the main character than with the antagonist. A mediation analysis revealed that identifying with the character being in favor of the issue yielded a more positive attitude toward the issue. A considerable number of participants generated issue-relevant thoughts that proved predictive of the attitude. The experiment provides further evidence for the identification mechanism while revealing insights into how integration of explicit argumentative content into a narrative can influence issue-relevant thinking.
We investigated how exposure to media violence and family conflict affects adolescents’ subsequen... more We investigated how exposure to media violence and family conflict affects adolescents’ subsequent aggressive behavior. We expected a double dose effect, meaning that high media violence exposure would lead to higher levels of aggression for adolescents in high conflict families compared to low conflict families. A total of 499 adolescents (aged 10 to 14, 48% girls) participated in a two-wave longitudinal survey (4-month interval). Survey questions assessed their exposure to violence on television and in electronic games, family conflict, and aggressive behavior. Analyses revealed a significant interaction between media violence and family conflict. In families with higher conflict, higher media violence exposure was related to increased subsequent aggression. This study is the first to show a double dose effect of media violence and family conflict on adolescents’ aggression. These findings underscore the important role of the family in shaping the effects of adolescents’ media use on their social development.
Conference Presentations by Karin Fikkers
This study aimed to evaluate whether commonly used self-report measures of television and game vi... more This study aimed to evaluate whether commonly used self-report measures of television and game violence exposure represent reliable and valid measurement tools. Three self-report measures – direct estimates, user-rated favorites, and agency-rated favorites – were assessed in terms of test-retest reliability, criterion validity (their relationship with coded media diaries), and construct validity (their relationship with aggression and gender). A sample of 238 adolescents participated in a two-wave survey and completed two media diaries. For game violence, the three self-report measures were reliable and valid. For television violence, only direct estimates achieved test-retest reliability and construct validity. Criterion validity could not be established for the television violence measures, because a post-hoc analysis showed that the media diary was not a valid criterion measure for television violence. Our findings indicate that direct estimates are valid indicators of violent television and game exposure. User-rated and agency-rated favorites are additional valid options for game violence exposure.
Co-authors: Jessica Taylor Piotrowski, Patti M. Valkenburg
We investigated how exposure to media violence and family conflict affects adolescents’ subsequen... more We investigated how exposure to media violence and family conflict affects adolescents’ subsequent aggressive behavior. We expected a double dose effect, meaning that high media
violence exposure would lead to higher levels of aggression for adolescents in high conflict families compared to low conflict families. A total of 499 adolescents (aged 10 to 14, 48%
girls) participated in a two-wave longitudinal survey (4-month interval). Survey questions assessed their exposure to violence on television and in electronic games, family conflict, and
aggressive behavior. Media violence did not emerge as individual longitudinal predictor of adolescents’ aggression when controlling for family conflict. We did find a significant
interaction between media violence and family conflict. High media violence exposure led to increased aggression only for those adolescents who experienced high conflict in their family
environment. This study is the first to show a double dose effect of media violence and family conflict on adolescents’ aggression: In families with higher conflict, higher media violence exposure predicted increased aggression. These findings underscore the important role of the family in shaping the effects of adolescents’ media use on their social development.
Key words: adolescents, aggression, family conflict, media, violence.
Co-authors: Jessica Taylor Piotrowski, Wouter D. Weeda, Helen G.M. Vossen, Patti M. Valkenburg
An updated version of this paper was presented at the 2014 ICA in Seattle. That poster is now dow... more An updated version of this paper was presented at the 2014 ICA in Seattle. That poster is now downloadable from my Academia profile page; the paper is currently under review.
This study investigated the validity of adolescents’ direct estimates of their time spent with media and their exposure to media violence by comparing these direct estimates with adolescents’ responses to media diaries. We also investigated how these two measurement methods correlate with aggressive behavior, an important outcome variable in media-effects research. A sample of 211 Dutch 10- to 14-year-olds reported their general time spent with and their exposure to violence in television, DVDs, and games and kept a two-day media diary. Except for general DVD use and television violence exposure, all direct estimates correlated significantly with the media diaries. Only the direct estimates of general time spent with games and DVDs and exposure to violence in games and DVDs correlated significantly with aggressive behavior. None of the adolescents’ responses to the media diaries did so. The paper ends with a discussion on the implications of the results for future research.
Keywords: media diary, direct estimate, media exposure, media violence, aggressive behavior
Co-authors: Patti M. Valkenburg, Helen G.M. Vossen
Book Chapters by Karin Fikkers
Encyclopedia of Media Violence, 2013
For many years, researchers have wondered what people find attractive in violent entertainment. W... more For many years, researchers have wondered what people find attractive in violent entertainment. Why do people watch movies like 'Saw' or play first-person shooter games like 'Call of Duty'? The answer to this question is highly relevant, because convincing evidence exists that individuals who are more attracted to violent entertainment are also more likely to be affected by it, that is, become more aggressive. It is therefore remarkable that research into the appeal of such entertainment has received far less attention than research into its effects. This entry discusses the most common reasons for consuming violent entertainment. Although these reasons are to a certain extent intertwined, three broad categories can be distinguished: person-based, social, and experiential explanations.
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Papers by Karin Fikkers
relationship between media violence exposure and adolescents’ aggressive behavior. This was
informed by a need to better understand whether, how, and for whom media violence
exposure may affect aggression. Three hypotheses were tested with peer norms as moderator,
as mediator, and as both moderator and mediator in the relationship between media violence
and aggression. A two-wave longitudinal survey measured media violence exposure,
perceived descriptive and injunctive norms, and aggressive behavior among 943 adolescents
(aged 10 to 14, 50.4% girls). Results provided support only for the moderated-mediation
model. The indirect effect of media violence on aggression via perceived peer approval of
aggression (i.e., injunctive norms) was moderated by perceived prevalence of peer aggression
(i.e., descriptive norms). Specifically, media violence indirectly increased aggressive behavior
for adolescents who perceived more peer aggression, but decreased aggression for adolescents
who perceived less peer aggression. Implications for future research into media violence
effects are discussed.
perceived descriptive and injunctive norms, and aggressive behavior among 943 adolescents (aged 10 to 14, 50.4% girls). Results provided support only for the moderated-mediation
model. The indirect effect of media violence on aggression via perceived peer approval of aggression (i.e., injunctive norms) was moderated by perceived prevalence of peer aggression
(i.e., descriptive norms). Specifically, media violence indirectly increased aggressive behavior for adolescents who perceived more peer aggression, but decreased aggression for adolescents who perceived less peer aggression. Implications for future research into media violence effects are discussed.
Conference Presentations by Karin Fikkers
Co-authors: Jessica Taylor Piotrowski, Patti M. Valkenburg
violence exposure would lead to higher levels of aggression for adolescents in high conflict families compared to low conflict families. A total of 499 adolescents (aged 10 to 14, 48%
girls) participated in a two-wave longitudinal survey (4-month interval). Survey questions assessed their exposure to violence on television and in electronic games, family conflict, and
aggressive behavior. Media violence did not emerge as individual longitudinal predictor of adolescents’ aggression when controlling for family conflict. We did find a significant
interaction between media violence and family conflict. High media violence exposure led to increased aggression only for those adolescents who experienced high conflict in their family
environment. This study is the first to show a double dose effect of media violence and family conflict on adolescents’ aggression: In families with higher conflict, higher media violence exposure predicted increased aggression. These findings underscore the important role of the family in shaping the effects of adolescents’ media use on their social development.
Key words: adolescents, aggression, family conflict, media, violence.
Co-authors: Jessica Taylor Piotrowski, Wouter D. Weeda, Helen G.M. Vossen, Patti M. Valkenburg
This study investigated the validity of adolescents’ direct estimates of their time spent with media and their exposure to media violence by comparing these direct estimates with adolescents’ responses to media diaries. We also investigated how these two measurement methods correlate with aggressive behavior, an important outcome variable in media-effects research. A sample of 211 Dutch 10- to 14-year-olds reported their general time spent with and their exposure to violence in television, DVDs, and games and kept a two-day media diary. Except for general DVD use and television violence exposure, all direct estimates correlated significantly with the media diaries. Only the direct estimates of general time spent with games and DVDs and exposure to violence in games and DVDs correlated significantly with aggressive behavior. None of the adolescents’ responses to the media diaries did so. The paper ends with a discussion on the implications of the results for future research.
Keywords: media diary, direct estimate, media exposure, media violence, aggressive behavior
Co-authors: Patti M. Valkenburg, Helen G.M. Vossen
Book Chapters by Karin Fikkers
relationship between media violence exposure and adolescents’ aggressive behavior. This was
informed by a need to better understand whether, how, and for whom media violence
exposure may affect aggression. Three hypotheses were tested with peer norms as moderator,
as mediator, and as both moderator and mediator in the relationship between media violence
and aggression. A two-wave longitudinal survey measured media violence exposure,
perceived descriptive and injunctive norms, and aggressive behavior among 943 adolescents
(aged 10 to 14, 50.4% girls). Results provided support only for the moderated-mediation
model. The indirect effect of media violence on aggression via perceived peer approval of
aggression (i.e., injunctive norms) was moderated by perceived prevalence of peer aggression
(i.e., descriptive norms). Specifically, media violence indirectly increased aggressive behavior
for adolescents who perceived more peer aggression, but decreased aggression for adolescents
who perceived less peer aggression. Implications for future research into media violence
effects are discussed.
perceived descriptive and injunctive norms, and aggressive behavior among 943 adolescents (aged 10 to 14, 50.4% girls). Results provided support only for the moderated-mediation
model. The indirect effect of media violence on aggression via perceived peer approval of aggression (i.e., injunctive norms) was moderated by perceived prevalence of peer aggression
(i.e., descriptive norms). Specifically, media violence indirectly increased aggressive behavior for adolescents who perceived more peer aggression, but decreased aggression for adolescents who perceived less peer aggression. Implications for future research into media violence effects are discussed.
Co-authors: Jessica Taylor Piotrowski, Patti M. Valkenburg
violence exposure would lead to higher levels of aggression for adolescents in high conflict families compared to low conflict families. A total of 499 adolescents (aged 10 to 14, 48%
girls) participated in a two-wave longitudinal survey (4-month interval). Survey questions assessed their exposure to violence on television and in electronic games, family conflict, and
aggressive behavior. Media violence did not emerge as individual longitudinal predictor of adolescents’ aggression when controlling for family conflict. We did find a significant
interaction between media violence and family conflict. High media violence exposure led to increased aggression only for those adolescents who experienced high conflict in their family
environment. This study is the first to show a double dose effect of media violence and family conflict on adolescents’ aggression: In families with higher conflict, higher media violence exposure predicted increased aggression. These findings underscore the important role of the family in shaping the effects of adolescents’ media use on their social development.
Key words: adolescents, aggression, family conflict, media, violence.
Co-authors: Jessica Taylor Piotrowski, Wouter D. Weeda, Helen G.M. Vossen, Patti M. Valkenburg
This study investigated the validity of adolescents’ direct estimates of their time spent with media and their exposure to media violence by comparing these direct estimates with adolescents’ responses to media diaries. We also investigated how these two measurement methods correlate with aggressive behavior, an important outcome variable in media-effects research. A sample of 211 Dutch 10- to 14-year-olds reported their general time spent with and their exposure to violence in television, DVDs, and games and kept a two-day media diary. Except for general DVD use and television violence exposure, all direct estimates correlated significantly with the media diaries. Only the direct estimates of general time spent with games and DVDs and exposure to violence in games and DVDs correlated significantly with aggressive behavior. None of the adolescents’ responses to the media diaries did so. The paper ends with a discussion on the implications of the results for future research.
Keywords: media diary, direct estimate, media exposure, media violence, aggressive behavior
Co-authors: Patti M. Valkenburg, Helen G.M. Vossen