The history of mineral components in cementitious materials begins with clays and bitumen in the ... more The history of mineral components in cementitious materials begins with clays and bitumen in the most ancient mortars, followed by gypsum- and lime-based plasters, mortars, and concretes. Romans perfected the fabrication of extremely durable mortars that form the basis of audacious architectural monuments in Rome, massive harbor constructions, and water-proofed cisterns in the Mediterranean region. During the industrial revolution, “natural cements” were developed through the burning of impure limestone or Si- and Al-bearing materials blended with pure limestone. Delving into the past of concrete science and the composition, durability, and resilience of historic binders, mortars, and concretes can inspire the development of modern environmentally friendly cementitious materials.
The island of Surtsey was formed in 1963–1967 on the offshore Icelandic volcanic rift zone. It of... more The island of Surtsey was formed in 1963–1967 on the offshore Icelandic volcanic rift zone. It offers a unique opportunity to study the subsurface biosphere in newly formed oceanic crust and an associated hydrothermal-seawater system, whose maximum temperature is currently above 120°C at about 100m below surface. Here, we present new insights into the diversity, distribution, and abundance of microorganisms in the subsurface of the island, 50years after its creation. Samples, including basaltic tuff drill cores and associated fluids acquired at successive depths as well as surface fumes from fumaroles, were collected during expedition 5059 of the International Continental Scientific Drilling Program specifically designed to collect microbiological samples. Results of this microbial survey are investigated with 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing and scanning electron microscopy. To distinguish endemic microbial taxa of subsurface rocks from potential contaminants present in the drilli...
Horace could more accurately have compared the celebrated lifespan of his poems to the extremely ... more Horace could more accurately have compared the celebrated lifespan of his poems to the extremely durable concrete monuments that were being constructed in Rome and the harbors of the Mediterranean region by his patron, Octavian, who would become Emperor Augustus (27 BCE– 14 CE) (Figure 1a–c). Bronzes irreversibly and inexorably decay through chloride corrosion in coastal and marine environments, and Egyptian pyramids are now collapsing—having suffered progressive differential movement and detachment of their limestone blocks, probably through anisotropic thermal expansion of calcite during heating by transit of the sun in the desert and subsequent disruption through seismic ground shaking. I have crafted a monument more lasting than bronze, more imposing than the royal structure of the pyramids, one that neither eroding rain nor the furious North Wind can bring to ruin, nor the passage of countless years and the flight of time.
Marie Jackson Department of History, PO Box 6023, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona... more Marie Jackson Department of History, PO Box 6023, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, 86011-6023 Tel. (928) 774-2276; Fax (928) 214-8240; [email protected] ... Cynthia Kosso Department of History, PO Box 6023, Northern Arizona University ...
<p>Submarine volcanic activity was observed in the Vestmannaeyjar archipela... more <p>Submarine volcanic activity was observed in the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago off the south coast of Iceland in November 1963, at a location where the pre-eruption oceanic depth was 130 m.  The eruption continued until July 1967. As a result of the eruption, a volcanic island, Surtsey, and its short-lived satellite islands (Surtla, Syrtlingur, and Jólnir) were created.  The progression of the eruption was very well documented at the time.  However, data on structures below sea level has been limited to drillholes on the rim of the Surtur crater on the main Surtsey island.  In order to study the existence and possible location of pillow lava from the initial phases of the eruption and shallow intrusions within and below the edifices formed in 1963-1967, a six-hour-long aeromagnetic survey was completed in October 2021 over the Surtsey area. The survey is done using a Geometrics MagArrow drone magnetometer, here adapted for operation while fixed to an aircraft. The survey covered 60 km<sup>2</sup>.  The spacing between profiles was 200 m and the flight elevation 100 m a.s.l. The MagArrow has a sampling frequency of 1000 Hz, which for an aircraft flying at 50 m/s gives a reading every 5 cm. To remove noise and perturbations from the aircraft, the data is low-pass filtered in two steps, firstly by averaging 50 measurements providing 20 Hz data, then by applying low pass filter with a cutoff frequency of 0.225 Hz, removing wavelengths smaller than 200-250m.  Initial data processing indicates some variations in the sources to the anomalies observed.  Major anomalies arise from the subaerial lavas on Surtsey itself, while the submarine remnants of the island Syrtlingur, active in 1965, show no anomalies.  This suggests that it is exclusively made of tuffs with no significant intrusions, similar to the structure of Surtsey itself below sea floor according to the drill cores obtained in 1979 and 2017.  In contrast, a clear anomaly is observed over the submarine remnants of the satellite island Jólnir, which was formed over several months in 1966. Apparently, this anomaly can only be explained by a magnetic body located no deeper than at 100 m depth below the seafloor at the eastern part of Jólnir, the same location as the vent active in 1966. </p>
Underwater investigations of Porto Cristo harbor, Majorca, Spain reveal a merchant vessel shipwre... more Underwater investigations of Porto Cristo harbor, Majorca, Spain reveal a merchant vessel shipwrecked in 50-60 CE. 'Ses Llumetes' had a heterogeneous cargo; a ~25 cm deposit of vitric-crystal-lithic tephra with armoured lapilli, as well as small fragments of ceramic and construction materials, protected the wood architecture from decay. Major and trace elements of the shipwrecked pumice are identical to pumice pozzolan from Campi Flegrei volcanic district in Roman concrete harbor structures drilled by the ROMACONS project. To understand whether the deposit represents ballast or, alternatively, pozzolan for concretes, the fabrics of the shipwrecked tephra, Campi Flegrei Bacoli Tuff and mortars of the Portus Cosanus, Santa Liberata harbor concretes are described. Tephra component classification of rimmed magma pyroclasts includes: (V) vitric armoured lapillus; fresh glass, (P) pumice armoured lapillus; altered glass, (C) crystal armoured lapillus. Rimmed edifice fragments include (VL) vitric-lithic armoured lapillus; tuff, (LL) lithic armoured lapillus; lava, (CL) crystal fragments; quartz, and (CmL) composite armoured lapillus.
A new International Continental Drilling Program (ICDP) project will drill through the 50-year-ol... more A new International Continental Drilling Program (ICDP) project will drill through the 50-year-old edifice of Surtsey Volcano, the youngest of the Vestmannaeyjar Islands along the south coast of Iceland, to perform interdisciplinary time-lapse investigations of hydrothermal and microbial interactions with basaltic tephra. The volcano, created in 1963–1967 by submarine and subaerial basaltic eruptions, was first drilled in 1979. In October 2014, a workshop funded by the ICDP convened 24 scientists from 10 countries for 3 and a half days on Heimaey Island to develop scientific objectives, site the drill holes, and organize logistical support. Representatives of the Surtsey Research Society and Environment Agency of Iceland also participated. Scientific themes focus on further determinations of the structure and eruptive processes of the type locality of Surtseyan volcanism, descriptions of changes in fluid geochemistry and microbial colonization of the subterrestrial deposits since dr...
Organic-inorganic binders were widely used in ancient Chinese construction. Representative sample... more Organic-inorganic binders were widely used in ancient Chinese construction. Representative samples from four important ancient Chinese walls were investigated with diverse analytical methods. Three series of lime binder reproductions with sticky rice, tung oil and pig blood were fabricated and investigated with similar methods.
The concrete composites used to realize the monumental structures of Imperial Rome are remarkable... more The concrete composites used to realize the monumental structures of Imperial Rome are remarkable engineering materials. While the endurance of intact constructions such as the Pantheon evinces the concretes’ durability, such durability mostly serves to preserve the mechanical properties, which are responsible both for the monuments’ original creation and continued survival. Despite their prominent role in the engineering achievements of the empire, these mechanical properties – particularly in tension and fracture – have not been comprehensively assessed. We first review the mechanical properties obtained through various experimental programs conducted on both authentic ancient composite core samples and their components, summarizing the major findings and outlining the remaining gaps in knowledge. We then qualitatively discuss the fracture of Roman concrete within the context of our own testing program, which will test both refabricated and authentic materials, with the aim of cha...
ABSTRACT Roman maritime concrete structures have remained cohesive and intact for 2000 years. The... more ABSTRACT Roman maritime concrete structures have remained cohesive and intact for 2000 years. The secrets to their extraordinary endurance in the aggressive sea-water environment, which attacks modern concretes through diverse physical and chemical processes, have long remained a mystery. The fundamental binding substance of all the concretes drilled by ROMACONS is a hydraulic pozzolanic mortar, a composite material formulated mainly from hydrated lime and pumiceous volcanic ash. This rough, heterogeneous material holds the clues to understanding the overall coherence and longevity of the concrete structures. Its crystalline cementitious hydrates are the nanoscale expression of Roman builders’ adept empirical expertise in building exceptionally tenacious concrete structures in the sea...
Abstract Roman hydraulic maritime concretes of the central Italian coast have pumiceous volcanic ... more Abstract Roman hydraulic maritime concretes of the central Italian coast have pumiceous volcanic ash, or pulvis Puteolanus, from the Bay of Naples as mortar pozzolan. Petrographic and mineralogical analyses of cement microstructures in relict lime, tuff, and pumice clasts suggest that pozzolanic reaction at high pH produced gel-like calcium-aluminum-silica-hydrate cements. Orthorhombic 11 Å-tobermorite, with unit cell dimensions a= 5.591 (1) Å, b= 3.695 (1) Å, c= 22.86 (1) Å, developed in the residual cores of portlandite clasts and in ...
Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union, 2014
Surtsey, an isolated oceanic island and a World Heritage Site of the United Nations Educational, ... more Surtsey, an isolated oceanic island and a World Heritage Site of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, is a uniquely well-documented natural laboratory for investigating processes of rift zone volcanism, hydrothermal alteration of basaltic tephra, and biological colonization and succession in surface and subsurface pyroclastic deposits. Deposits from Surtsey's eruptions from 1963 to 1967 were first explored via a 181-meter hole drilled in 1979 by the U.S. Geological Survey and Icelandic Museum of Natural History, which described petrologic characteristics of the basaltic tephra, partially altered to lithified tuff, thermal conditions, nature of hydrothermal alteration, and growth of a rare calcium-silicate and zeolite assemblage above and below sealevel [Jakobsson and Moore, 1986]. A workshop convened on Heimaey Island, Iceland, developed the scientific rationale and logistical strategies for a forthcoming proposal to fund a new drilling program at Surtsey. Twenty-four scientists from 10 countries, including representatives from the Surtsey Research Society and the Environment Agency of Iceland, attended the Surtsey Underwater Volcanic System for Thermophiles, Alteration Processes and Innovative Concretes (SUSTAIN) drilling program workshop, funded by the International Continental Drilling Program (ICDP). The collaborative investigations proposed by SUSTAIN's scientific team focus on three ICDP research themes: volcanic systems and geothermal regimes, the geobiosphere, and natural resources-as applied to environmentally sustainable pyroclastic rock concretes. The synergistic approach agreed upon by the workshop participants aims to integrate new interdisciplinary findings about original constructive and eruptive processes at Surtsey with new studies of mineralogical processes in the 50-year-old deposits and new monitoring and exploration of the active hydrothermal system and subterrestrial microbial colonization. The workshop participants came to the decision that questions about the active evolution of thermal conditions and the role of abiotic and biotic processes in the progressive lithification of basaltic tephra, the nature of hydrothermal alteration, and the growth of a rare calcium silicate and zeolite assemblage above and below sea level over the past 35 years could be answered only by drilling near the site of the previous hole in the eastern crater of the volcano. Through discussion and collaboration, the SUSTAIN workshop participants developed a proposed drilling program based on two cored holes, designed to protect the sensitive wildlife and vegetative habitats of the Surtsey Natural Reserve. A clean 200-meter-deep vertical hole with anodized aluminum casing would allow scientists to explore pore water chemistry, microbiota-water-rock interactions, and seawater compositional modifications over time in a future "observatory" with packer experiments. A 300-meter-long hole with steel casing inclined west toward the eastern volcanic vent axis would intersect dike intrusions beneath the crater, enabling researchers to gain additional information on deep stratigraphy and structure, and investigate the higher temperature zones of the hydrothermal system.
The history of mineral components in cementitious materials begins with clays and bitumen in the ... more The history of mineral components in cementitious materials begins with clays and bitumen in the most ancient mortars, followed by gypsum- and lime-based plasters, mortars, and concretes. Romans perfected the fabrication of extremely durable mortars that form the basis of audacious architectural monuments in Rome, massive harbor constructions, and water-proofed cisterns in the Mediterranean region. During the industrial revolution, “natural cements” were developed through the burning of impure limestone or Si- and Al-bearing materials blended with pure limestone. Delving into the past of concrete science and the composition, durability, and resilience of historic binders, mortars, and concretes can inspire the development of modern environmentally friendly cementitious materials.
The island of Surtsey was formed in 1963–1967 on the offshore Icelandic volcanic rift zone. It of... more The island of Surtsey was formed in 1963–1967 on the offshore Icelandic volcanic rift zone. It offers a unique opportunity to study the subsurface biosphere in newly formed oceanic crust and an associated hydrothermal-seawater system, whose maximum temperature is currently above 120°C at about 100m below surface. Here, we present new insights into the diversity, distribution, and abundance of microorganisms in the subsurface of the island, 50years after its creation. Samples, including basaltic tuff drill cores and associated fluids acquired at successive depths as well as surface fumes from fumaroles, were collected during expedition 5059 of the International Continental Scientific Drilling Program specifically designed to collect microbiological samples. Results of this microbial survey are investigated with 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing and scanning electron microscopy. To distinguish endemic microbial taxa of subsurface rocks from potential contaminants present in the drilli...
Horace could more accurately have compared the celebrated lifespan of his poems to the extremely ... more Horace could more accurately have compared the celebrated lifespan of his poems to the extremely durable concrete monuments that were being constructed in Rome and the harbors of the Mediterranean region by his patron, Octavian, who would become Emperor Augustus (27 BCE– 14 CE) (Figure 1a–c). Bronzes irreversibly and inexorably decay through chloride corrosion in coastal and marine environments, and Egyptian pyramids are now collapsing—having suffered progressive differential movement and detachment of their limestone blocks, probably through anisotropic thermal expansion of calcite during heating by transit of the sun in the desert and subsequent disruption through seismic ground shaking. I have crafted a monument more lasting than bronze, more imposing than the royal structure of the pyramids, one that neither eroding rain nor the furious North Wind can bring to ruin, nor the passage of countless years and the flight of time.
Marie Jackson Department of History, PO Box 6023, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona... more Marie Jackson Department of History, PO Box 6023, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, 86011-6023 Tel. (928) 774-2276; Fax (928) 214-8240; [email protected] ... Cynthia Kosso Department of History, PO Box 6023, Northern Arizona University ...
<p>Submarine volcanic activity was observed in the Vestmannaeyjar archipela... more <p>Submarine volcanic activity was observed in the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago off the south coast of Iceland in November 1963, at a location where the pre-eruption oceanic depth was 130 m.  The eruption continued until July 1967. As a result of the eruption, a volcanic island, Surtsey, and its short-lived satellite islands (Surtla, Syrtlingur, and Jólnir) were created.  The progression of the eruption was very well documented at the time.  However, data on structures below sea level has been limited to drillholes on the rim of the Surtur crater on the main Surtsey island.  In order to study the existence and possible location of pillow lava from the initial phases of the eruption and shallow intrusions within and below the edifices formed in 1963-1967, a six-hour-long aeromagnetic survey was completed in October 2021 over the Surtsey area. The survey is done using a Geometrics MagArrow drone magnetometer, here adapted for operation while fixed to an aircraft. The survey covered 60 km<sup>2</sup>.  The spacing between profiles was 200 m and the flight elevation 100 m a.s.l. The MagArrow has a sampling frequency of 1000 Hz, which for an aircraft flying at 50 m/s gives a reading every 5 cm. To remove noise and perturbations from the aircraft, the data is low-pass filtered in two steps, firstly by averaging 50 measurements providing 20 Hz data, then by applying low pass filter with a cutoff frequency of 0.225 Hz, removing wavelengths smaller than 200-250m.  Initial data processing indicates some variations in the sources to the anomalies observed.  Major anomalies arise from the subaerial lavas on Surtsey itself, while the submarine remnants of the island Syrtlingur, active in 1965, show no anomalies.  This suggests that it is exclusively made of tuffs with no significant intrusions, similar to the structure of Surtsey itself below sea floor according to the drill cores obtained in 1979 and 2017.  In contrast, a clear anomaly is observed over the submarine remnants of the satellite island Jólnir, which was formed over several months in 1966. Apparently, this anomaly can only be explained by a magnetic body located no deeper than at 100 m depth below the seafloor at the eastern part of Jólnir, the same location as the vent active in 1966. </p>
Underwater investigations of Porto Cristo harbor, Majorca, Spain reveal a merchant vessel shipwre... more Underwater investigations of Porto Cristo harbor, Majorca, Spain reveal a merchant vessel shipwrecked in 50-60 CE. 'Ses Llumetes' had a heterogeneous cargo; a ~25 cm deposit of vitric-crystal-lithic tephra with armoured lapilli, as well as small fragments of ceramic and construction materials, protected the wood architecture from decay. Major and trace elements of the shipwrecked pumice are identical to pumice pozzolan from Campi Flegrei volcanic district in Roman concrete harbor structures drilled by the ROMACONS project. To understand whether the deposit represents ballast or, alternatively, pozzolan for concretes, the fabrics of the shipwrecked tephra, Campi Flegrei Bacoli Tuff and mortars of the Portus Cosanus, Santa Liberata harbor concretes are described. Tephra component classification of rimmed magma pyroclasts includes: (V) vitric armoured lapillus; fresh glass, (P) pumice armoured lapillus; altered glass, (C) crystal armoured lapillus. Rimmed edifice fragments include (VL) vitric-lithic armoured lapillus; tuff, (LL) lithic armoured lapillus; lava, (CL) crystal fragments; quartz, and (CmL) composite armoured lapillus.
A new International Continental Drilling Program (ICDP) project will drill through the 50-year-ol... more A new International Continental Drilling Program (ICDP) project will drill through the 50-year-old edifice of Surtsey Volcano, the youngest of the Vestmannaeyjar Islands along the south coast of Iceland, to perform interdisciplinary time-lapse investigations of hydrothermal and microbial interactions with basaltic tephra. The volcano, created in 1963–1967 by submarine and subaerial basaltic eruptions, was first drilled in 1979. In October 2014, a workshop funded by the ICDP convened 24 scientists from 10 countries for 3 and a half days on Heimaey Island to develop scientific objectives, site the drill holes, and organize logistical support. Representatives of the Surtsey Research Society and Environment Agency of Iceland also participated. Scientific themes focus on further determinations of the structure and eruptive processes of the type locality of Surtseyan volcanism, descriptions of changes in fluid geochemistry and microbial colonization of the subterrestrial deposits since dr...
Organic-inorganic binders were widely used in ancient Chinese construction. Representative sample... more Organic-inorganic binders were widely used in ancient Chinese construction. Representative samples from four important ancient Chinese walls were investigated with diverse analytical methods. Three series of lime binder reproductions with sticky rice, tung oil and pig blood were fabricated and investigated with similar methods.
The concrete composites used to realize the monumental structures of Imperial Rome are remarkable... more The concrete composites used to realize the monumental structures of Imperial Rome are remarkable engineering materials. While the endurance of intact constructions such as the Pantheon evinces the concretes’ durability, such durability mostly serves to preserve the mechanical properties, which are responsible both for the monuments’ original creation and continued survival. Despite their prominent role in the engineering achievements of the empire, these mechanical properties – particularly in tension and fracture – have not been comprehensively assessed. We first review the mechanical properties obtained through various experimental programs conducted on both authentic ancient composite core samples and their components, summarizing the major findings and outlining the remaining gaps in knowledge. We then qualitatively discuss the fracture of Roman concrete within the context of our own testing program, which will test both refabricated and authentic materials, with the aim of cha...
ABSTRACT Roman maritime concrete structures have remained cohesive and intact for 2000 years. The... more ABSTRACT Roman maritime concrete structures have remained cohesive and intact for 2000 years. The secrets to their extraordinary endurance in the aggressive sea-water environment, which attacks modern concretes through diverse physical and chemical processes, have long remained a mystery. The fundamental binding substance of all the concretes drilled by ROMACONS is a hydraulic pozzolanic mortar, a composite material formulated mainly from hydrated lime and pumiceous volcanic ash. This rough, heterogeneous material holds the clues to understanding the overall coherence and longevity of the concrete structures. Its crystalline cementitious hydrates are the nanoscale expression of Roman builders’ adept empirical expertise in building exceptionally tenacious concrete structures in the sea...
Abstract Roman hydraulic maritime concretes of the central Italian coast have pumiceous volcanic ... more Abstract Roman hydraulic maritime concretes of the central Italian coast have pumiceous volcanic ash, or pulvis Puteolanus, from the Bay of Naples as mortar pozzolan. Petrographic and mineralogical analyses of cement microstructures in relict lime, tuff, and pumice clasts suggest that pozzolanic reaction at high pH produced gel-like calcium-aluminum-silica-hydrate cements. Orthorhombic 11 Å-tobermorite, with unit cell dimensions a= 5.591 (1) Å, b= 3.695 (1) Å, c= 22.86 (1) Å, developed in the residual cores of portlandite clasts and in ...
Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union, 2014
Surtsey, an isolated oceanic island and a World Heritage Site of the United Nations Educational, ... more Surtsey, an isolated oceanic island and a World Heritage Site of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, is a uniquely well-documented natural laboratory for investigating processes of rift zone volcanism, hydrothermal alteration of basaltic tephra, and biological colonization and succession in surface and subsurface pyroclastic deposits. Deposits from Surtsey's eruptions from 1963 to 1967 were first explored via a 181-meter hole drilled in 1979 by the U.S. Geological Survey and Icelandic Museum of Natural History, which described petrologic characteristics of the basaltic tephra, partially altered to lithified tuff, thermal conditions, nature of hydrothermal alteration, and growth of a rare calcium-silicate and zeolite assemblage above and below sealevel [Jakobsson and Moore, 1986]. A workshop convened on Heimaey Island, Iceland, developed the scientific rationale and logistical strategies for a forthcoming proposal to fund a new drilling program at Surtsey. Twenty-four scientists from 10 countries, including representatives from the Surtsey Research Society and the Environment Agency of Iceland, attended the Surtsey Underwater Volcanic System for Thermophiles, Alteration Processes and Innovative Concretes (SUSTAIN) drilling program workshop, funded by the International Continental Drilling Program (ICDP). The collaborative investigations proposed by SUSTAIN's scientific team focus on three ICDP research themes: volcanic systems and geothermal regimes, the geobiosphere, and natural resources-as applied to environmentally sustainable pyroclastic rock concretes. The synergistic approach agreed upon by the workshop participants aims to integrate new interdisciplinary findings about original constructive and eruptive processes at Surtsey with new studies of mineralogical processes in the 50-year-old deposits and new monitoring and exploration of the active hydrothermal system and subterrestrial microbial colonization. The workshop participants came to the decision that questions about the active evolution of thermal conditions and the role of abiotic and biotic processes in the progressive lithification of basaltic tephra, the nature of hydrothermal alteration, and the growth of a rare calcium silicate and zeolite assemblage above and below sea level over the past 35 years could be answered only by drilling near the site of the previous hole in the eastern crater of the volcano. Through discussion and collaboration, the SUSTAIN workshop participants developed a proposed drilling program based on two cored holes, designed to protect the sensitive wildlife and vegetative habitats of the Surtsey Natural Reserve. A clean 200-meter-deep vertical hole with anodized aluminum casing would allow scientists to explore pore water chemistry, microbiota-water-rock interactions, and seawater compositional modifications over time in a future "observatory" with packer experiments. A 300-meter-long hole with steel casing inclined west toward the eastern volcanic vent axis would intersect dike intrusions beneath the crater, enabling researchers to gain additional information on deep stratigraphy and structure, and investigate the higher temperature zones of the hydrothermal system.
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