This symposium addresses recent language policy developments in Vanuatu’s education system. Plann... more This symposium addresses recent language policy developments in Vanuatu’s education system. Planners in Vanuatu must contend with immense linguistic diversity, comprising around 100 vernacular languages, Bislama (a pidgin/creole that serves as national language and co-official language), and English and French (former colonial languages, co-official languages, and ‘principal languages’ of a dual-medium education system). Language debates have featured in the socio-political landscape since Independence, reflecting pressures towards tradition (the importance of the vernaculars, and recognising Bislama as a unifying force and token of national identity), and also modernity (the rise of Bislama as an urban creole, the growing importance of English, and reactions against the perceived decline in the significance of French). Bislama’s place within formal education has been particularly controversial and, while desires to include the multiplicity of small vernaculars are growing, just ask...
This paper analyses the participatory space for political debate opened up by social media in Van... more This paper analyses the participatory space for political debate opened up by social media in Vanuatu with reference to the implementation of a recent language-in-education policy, jointly funded by the governments of Vanuatu, Australia and New Zealand. Although Vanuatu appears to have been debating the same language issues for several decades, what is new is the level of participatory engagement in political matters, with the Facebook group Yumi Toktok Stret (YTS) providing one platform through which democratic citizenship is established and negotiated. Analysis of a debate that erupted in the group in March 2016 reveals significant disquiet and confusion about a change to the medium of instruction in early primary education. I argue that social media provides an invaluable insight into the extent to which the general public understands, feels consulted about and supports policy change. The debate on YTS also shows that the Government, its international development partners and technical advisors would be well advised to pay attention to such debates, and engage with social media as a new mediated "think tank" through which new policies can be democratically debated.
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 2016
Language-in-education policies are developed and implemented within contexts of great complexity.... more Language-in-education policies are developed and implemented within contexts of great complexity. Where policies appear less than perfect on paper, this presents a valuable opportunity to examine the contextual factors that have led to their development, helping policymakers to understand the conditions under which policy change must take place. This paper considers an early-exit transitional model of multilingual education that has recently been endorsed in Vanuatu. While the academic literature would conclude that this model is far from ideal, this paper suggests that the time is right for the type of change that is being implemented in this context. It examines the historico-political factors that have left this problematic policy as the best chance of change, and identifies ways in which it could be modified within a plurilingual approach across the whole curriculum.
The University of the South Pacific is a regional university catering for 12 countries. Its locat... more The University of the South Pacific is a regional university catering for 12 countries. Its location situates it within unparalleled linguistic diversity, and its regional structure creates a highly multilingual body of staff and students interacting either face-toface on the major campuses or remotely via e-learning and satellite communications. On the surface, it is an exciting place to be engaging with matters of language and linguistic diversity. However, in common with many universities that strive for academic excellence whilst operating on sound financial principles and catering equitably for a diverse student population, there are a number of institutional factors that unintentionally stifle the opportunities to study, learn and use multiple languages. This paper discusses language planning at the university with reference to Hornberger's [(2002). Multilingual language policies and the continua of biliteracy: An ecological approach. Language Policy, 1, 27-51] metaphor of ideological and implementational space. It considers the mechanisms that serve to close down institutional space for languages other than English, and identifies opportunities to carve out new and different spaces. This paper argues for the need to work within, between and around the spaces left by shifts towards rationalisation and efficiency in ways that move with, rather than against, the tide. It is suggested that seeking space for languages other than English within tertiary institutions, and thus challenging the monolingualising tendencies of the shifts in the global landscape, requires a four-step framework of engagement, working sideways to engage with the macro and the micro simultaneously.
With global attention currently focused on the challenge of providing Education for All (UNESCO 2... more With global attention currently focused on the challenge of providing Education for All (UNESCO 2000), we must ensure that the language of teaching and learning remains a topic on the agenda towards making sure that the education being provided is effective. This is therefore a critical time to review medium of instruction debates, and to reassess what empirical evidence exists to guide policymaking that is both appropriate and achievable. Contributing to this endeavour, this paper argues for the approximate replication of two key studies. The first is Afolayan (1976), a widely-cited study conducted in Ife, Nigeria to test the effectiveness of teaching children in the mother tongue for six years of primary education. We argue that the frequency with which the success of this study is cited, without due attention paid to the details of its methodological procedure, may actually be detrimental to the success of other experiments, thus necessitating the careful replication of the origi...
ABSTRACT This paper examines the way language-in-education policy-making in Vanuatu has dealt wit... more ABSTRACT This paper examines the way language-in-education policy-making in Vanuatu has dealt with multilingualism at three points in the nation's short history: in 1980, as the country gained its independence from Britain and France; in 1999, during a period of intense change across government departments following the Comprehensive Reform Programme (CRP); and in 2010, as Vanuatu looked back on 30 years of independence. At each of these points in time, the analysis of key policy texts reveals traces of globalised discourses of, respectively, the rejection of colonialism, the effectiveness of mother tongue education, and plurilingualism. Each of these discourses might appear to open up space for multilingual education and yet the outcome appears to be the same on each occasion, as the former colonial languages continue to dominate. This paper examines the wider contexts within which these three episodes in Vanuatu's language-in-education policy chronicle were situated. Analysis of the socio-economic and historico-political contexts within which each policy text was produced reveals that the legacy of the dual colonial period remains a barrier in the way of an education system that is appropriate in and for multilingual Vanuatu.
The specific policy proposals that are critiqued in this article are those put forward by the Edu... more The specific policy proposals that are critiqued in this article are those put forward by the Education Language Policy Team. Although this team was appointed by the Ministry of Education, the proposals do not necessarily reflect the views of the Ministry, or of the Vanuatu government as a whole.
Running title: The position of English globally and nationally This paper investigates language i... more Running title: The position of English globally and nationally This paper investigates language ideologies relevant to medium of instruction policy within two postcolonial countries: Cameroon and Vanuatu. Each country experienced British and French rule, and has retained both English and French as official languages and media of instruction. However, since Independence, there has been a difference in the way the two languages are perceived in each country, due to the numerical imbalance between those who are considered 'Anglophone' and 'Francophone'. In Cameroon, the majority language has been French. In Vanuatu, it has been English. Drawing on data collected during two independent studies, this paper examines the extent to which the global spread of English affects this situation, given the dominant ideology in which English is considered the language of opportunity. In Cameroon, while French still dominates, there is some evidence of a shift towards English, as this language is afforded increasing value. In Vanuatu, English continues to be the language of power at both national and global levels, and yet there appears to be a resurgence of support for the maintenance of French. The desire to know both 'international languages' reaffirms the privileging of the former colonial languages in both contexts, although it appears that the hegemony of English itself is tempered to a certain extent.
Sociolinguistic research can be considered to have taken a ‘multilingual turn’ (May, 2013) in rec... more Sociolinguistic research can be considered to have taken a ‘multilingual turn’ (May, 2013) in recent years, challenging and denaturalising the linguistic boundaries that have traditionally been considered to tie languages down into separate, bounded systems. This is partly in response to shifting and multi-layered patterns of movement and communication that have led to far greater linguistic complexity than we were previously accustomed to. However, this is also in recognition of the fact that many of the categories and concepts that we have grown used to using have never adequately captured or reflected the reality that sociolinguists aim to describe (Blommaert & Rampton, 2012). Analytic attention is thus drawn to the way that language users deploy complex repertoires of linguistic resources or features, avoiding the reification of boundaries between the ‘languages’ to which they might traditionally be considered to belong (Jorgensen et al, 2011). The question that then arises is: ...
The provision of quality education through the medium of English could be interpreted in many way... more The provision of quality education through the medium of English could be interpreted in many ways: perhaps developing strategies to help learners successfully negotiate subject content through what, for many, is not the dominant language; perhaps helping learners build a solid linguistic and cognitive foundation before being required to learn through English; perhaps paying attention to aspects such as grammar and punctuation at the same time as subject-specific content knowledge; or perhaps producing graduates who are able to put their content knowledge into practice in an English-dominant workplace. Unfortunately, these rather different interpretations are often conflated in the hope that there is one simple pathway to success. We must know what we mean by quality education through English if we have any hope of achieving it. With this in mind, this presentation outlines the strategy that USP has recently launched to, firstly, increase its own students’ chances of academic and pr...
The Routledge Handbook of Teaching English to Young Learners, 2018
This chapter surveys the teaching of English to young learners across a range of countries of the... more This chapter surveys the teaching of English to young learners across a range of countries of the ‘Anglophone’ Pacific region. English serves as an official language in these countries, and is firmly established as the principal medium of instruction throughout secondary and tertiary education. However, the teaching and educational use of English during early childhood and primary education varies widely across the Pacific, both in policy and in practice. Three broad issues will be discussed. The first is the ambiguity of the status of English, which may serve as a first, second or foreign language for different children. The second is the competing space in the early English curriculum for literacy development, formal language instruction in what may be a foreign language for many, and preparation for the use of English as a medium of instruction across the rest of the curriculum. The third is teacher training, which is not currently preparing teachers adequately to teach English e...
Abstract: In this response to Mufwene’s (2017) target article we discuss the benefits and disadva... more Abstract: In this response to Mufwene’s (2017) target article we discuss the benefits and disadvantages of extending the ecology metaphor into studies of language vitality, focusing on contexts from the South Pacific. We show that an ecological perspective allows us to focus on the local and particular and can help us to avoid a simplistic reliance on broad phenomena such as ‘globalization’ to account for language endangerment and loss (LEL). However, we contend that this endeavor runs the risk of abstracting away from the human experience of LEL into a ‘survival of the fittest’ or ‘balance sheet’ approach. We conclude that, while it has benefits, the ecology metaphor does not ultimately offer a compelling basis for an overarching theory of language vitality.
This symposium addresses recent language policy developments in Vanuatu’s education system. Plann... more This symposium addresses recent language policy developments in Vanuatu’s education system. Planners in Vanuatu must contend with immense linguistic diversity, comprising around 100 vernacular languages, Bislama (a pidgin/creole that serves as national language and co-official language), and English and French (former colonial languages, co-official languages, and ‘principal languages’ of a dual-medium education system). Language debates have featured in the socio-political landscape since Independence, reflecting pressures towards tradition (the importance of the vernaculars, and recognising Bislama as a unifying force and token of national identity), and also modernity (the rise of Bislama as an urban creole, the growing importance of English, and reactions against the perceived decline in the significance of French). Bislama’s place within formal education has been particularly controversial and, while desires to include the multiplicity of small vernaculars are growing, just ask...
This chapter discusses data collected from two neighbouring schools that shows the way staff, stu... more This chapter discusses data collected from two neighbouring schools that shows the way staff, students and community members talk about the idea of English-French 'bilingualism' in multiple ways: as "double the opportunity", as an essential part of "ni-Vanuatu identity", and as part of the colonial "heritage" that people want to hold onto. It is clear that ni-Vanuatu want to keep both languages. However, inside the Anglophone school, no French is spoken; inside the Francophone school, no English is spoken; and outside school, neither language is heard at all. More importantly, proficiency levels of both English and French show some cause for concern at both schools. The medium of instruction causes a challenge for learning at both schools, and 'bilingualism' in English and French is far from reality. The symbolic construction of English/French 'bilingualism' is very present, but the functional use of either language is limited.
The University of the South Pacific (USP) is co-owned by twelve member countries of a region in w... more The University of the South Pacific (USP) is co-owned by twelve member countries of a region in which approximately 200 languages are spoken. By nature, its campuses are highly multilingual and, by default, English-a second language for the majority-is the medium of instruction. USP has long been concerned that students’ levels of English are inadequate for tertiary studies, despite their arrival from (officially) English-medium schools. At the same time, it recognises its influence on this cycle, as it trains many of the region’s English teachers. The committee established to address ‘the English problem at USP’ thus ends up strategizing on a much larger scale. Despite the enormity of the issues, progress is expected to meet stringent deadlines and targets. Understandably, such a committee does not welcome questions like “What exactly do we mean by ‘English’ here?” but, when ‘English’ is used as a proxy for so many things - the campus lingua franca; the medium through which subject...
This symposium addresses recent language policy developments in Vanuatu’s education system. Plann... more This symposium addresses recent language policy developments in Vanuatu’s education system. Planners in Vanuatu must contend with immense linguistic diversity, comprising around 100 vernacular languages, Bislama (a pidgin/creole that serves as national language and co-official language), and English and French (former colonial languages, co-official languages, and ‘principal languages’ of a dual-medium education system). Language debates have featured in the socio-political landscape since Independence, reflecting pressures towards tradition (the importance of the vernaculars, and recognising Bislama as a unifying force and token of national identity), and also modernity (the rise of Bislama as an urban creole, the growing importance of English, and reactions against the perceived decline in the significance of French). Bislama’s place within formal education has been particularly controversial and, while desires to include the multiplicity of small vernaculars are growing, just ask...
This paper analyses the participatory space for political debate opened up by social media in Van... more This paper analyses the participatory space for political debate opened up by social media in Vanuatu with reference to the implementation of a recent language-in-education policy, jointly funded by the governments of Vanuatu, Australia and New Zealand. Although Vanuatu appears to have been debating the same language issues for several decades, what is new is the level of participatory engagement in political matters, with the Facebook group Yumi Toktok Stret (YTS) providing one platform through which democratic citizenship is established and negotiated. Analysis of a debate that erupted in the group in March 2016 reveals significant disquiet and confusion about a change to the medium of instruction in early primary education. I argue that social media provides an invaluable insight into the extent to which the general public understands, feels consulted about and supports policy change. The debate on YTS also shows that the Government, its international development partners and technical advisors would be well advised to pay attention to such debates, and engage with social media as a new mediated "think tank" through which new policies can be democratically debated.
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 2016
Language-in-education policies are developed and implemented within contexts of great complexity.... more Language-in-education policies are developed and implemented within contexts of great complexity. Where policies appear less than perfect on paper, this presents a valuable opportunity to examine the contextual factors that have led to their development, helping policymakers to understand the conditions under which policy change must take place. This paper considers an early-exit transitional model of multilingual education that has recently been endorsed in Vanuatu. While the academic literature would conclude that this model is far from ideal, this paper suggests that the time is right for the type of change that is being implemented in this context. It examines the historico-political factors that have left this problematic policy as the best chance of change, and identifies ways in which it could be modified within a plurilingual approach across the whole curriculum.
The University of the South Pacific is a regional university catering for 12 countries. Its locat... more The University of the South Pacific is a regional university catering for 12 countries. Its location situates it within unparalleled linguistic diversity, and its regional structure creates a highly multilingual body of staff and students interacting either face-toface on the major campuses or remotely via e-learning and satellite communications. On the surface, it is an exciting place to be engaging with matters of language and linguistic diversity. However, in common with many universities that strive for academic excellence whilst operating on sound financial principles and catering equitably for a diverse student population, there are a number of institutional factors that unintentionally stifle the opportunities to study, learn and use multiple languages. This paper discusses language planning at the university with reference to Hornberger's [(2002). Multilingual language policies and the continua of biliteracy: An ecological approach. Language Policy, 1, 27-51] metaphor of ideological and implementational space. It considers the mechanisms that serve to close down institutional space for languages other than English, and identifies opportunities to carve out new and different spaces. This paper argues for the need to work within, between and around the spaces left by shifts towards rationalisation and efficiency in ways that move with, rather than against, the tide. It is suggested that seeking space for languages other than English within tertiary institutions, and thus challenging the monolingualising tendencies of the shifts in the global landscape, requires a four-step framework of engagement, working sideways to engage with the macro and the micro simultaneously.
With global attention currently focused on the challenge of providing Education for All (UNESCO 2... more With global attention currently focused on the challenge of providing Education for All (UNESCO 2000), we must ensure that the language of teaching and learning remains a topic on the agenda towards making sure that the education being provided is effective. This is therefore a critical time to review medium of instruction debates, and to reassess what empirical evidence exists to guide policymaking that is both appropriate and achievable. Contributing to this endeavour, this paper argues for the approximate replication of two key studies. The first is Afolayan (1976), a widely-cited study conducted in Ife, Nigeria to test the effectiveness of teaching children in the mother tongue for six years of primary education. We argue that the frequency with which the success of this study is cited, without due attention paid to the details of its methodological procedure, may actually be detrimental to the success of other experiments, thus necessitating the careful replication of the origi...
ABSTRACT This paper examines the way language-in-education policy-making in Vanuatu has dealt wit... more ABSTRACT This paper examines the way language-in-education policy-making in Vanuatu has dealt with multilingualism at three points in the nation's short history: in 1980, as the country gained its independence from Britain and France; in 1999, during a period of intense change across government departments following the Comprehensive Reform Programme (CRP); and in 2010, as Vanuatu looked back on 30 years of independence. At each of these points in time, the analysis of key policy texts reveals traces of globalised discourses of, respectively, the rejection of colonialism, the effectiveness of mother tongue education, and plurilingualism. Each of these discourses might appear to open up space for multilingual education and yet the outcome appears to be the same on each occasion, as the former colonial languages continue to dominate. This paper examines the wider contexts within which these three episodes in Vanuatu's language-in-education policy chronicle were situated. Analysis of the socio-economic and historico-political contexts within which each policy text was produced reveals that the legacy of the dual colonial period remains a barrier in the way of an education system that is appropriate in and for multilingual Vanuatu.
The specific policy proposals that are critiqued in this article are those put forward by the Edu... more The specific policy proposals that are critiqued in this article are those put forward by the Education Language Policy Team. Although this team was appointed by the Ministry of Education, the proposals do not necessarily reflect the views of the Ministry, or of the Vanuatu government as a whole.
Running title: The position of English globally and nationally This paper investigates language i... more Running title: The position of English globally and nationally This paper investigates language ideologies relevant to medium of instruction policy within two postcolonial countries: Cameroon and Vanuatu. Each country experienced British and French rule, and has retained both English and French as official languages and media of instruction. However, since Independence, there has been a difference in the way the two languages are perceived in each country, due to the numerical imbalance between those who are considered 'Anglophone' and 'Francophone'. In Cameroon, the majority language has been French. In Vanuatu, it has been English. Drawing on data collected during two independent studies, this paper examines the extent to which the global spread of English affects this situation, given the dominant ideology in which English is considered the language of opportunity. In Cameroon, while French still dominates, there is some evidence of a shift towards English, as this language is afforded increasing value. In Vanuatu, English continues to be the language of power at both national and global levels, and yet there appears to be a resurgence of support for the maintenance of French. The desire to know both 'international languages' reaffirms the privileging of the former colonial languages in both contexts, although it appears that the hegemony of English itself is tempered to a certain extent.
Sociolinguistic research can be considered to have taken a ‘multilingual turn’ (May, 2013) in rec... more Sociolinguistic research can be considered to have taken a ‘multilingual turn’ (May, 2013) in recent years, challenging and denaturalising the linguistic boundaries that have traditionally been considered to tie languages down into separate, bounded systems. This is partly in response to shifting and multi-layered patterns of movement and communication that have led to far greater linguistic complexity than we were previously accustomed to. However, this is also in recognition of the fact that many of the categories and concepts that we have grown used to using have never adequately captured or reflected the reality that sociolinguists aim to describe (Blommaert & Rampton, 2012). Analytic attention is thus drawn to the way that language users deploy complex repertoires of linguistic resources or features, avoiding the reification of boundaries between the ‘languages’ to which they might traditionally be considered to belong (Jorgensen et al, 2011). The question that then arises is: ...
The provision of quality education through the medium of English could be interpreted in many way... more The provision of quality education through the medium of English could be interpreted in many ways: perhaps developing strategies to help learners successfully negotiate subject content through what, for many, is not the dominant language; perhaps helping learners build a solid linguistic and cognitive foundation before being required to learn through English; perhaps paying attention to aspects such as grammar and punctuation at the same time as subject-specific content knowledge; or perhaps producing graduates who are able to put their content knowledge into practice in an English-dominant workplace. Unfortunately, these rather different interpretations are often conflated in the hope that there is one simple pathway to success. We must know what we mean by quality education through English if we have any hope of achieving it. With this in mind, this presentation outlines the strategy that USP has recently launched to, firstly, increase its own students’ chances of academic and pr...
The Routledge Handbook of Teaching English to Young Learners, 2018
This chapter surveys the teaching of English to young learners across a range of countries of the... more This chapter surveys the teaching of English to young learners across a range of countries of the ‘Anglophone’ Pacific region. English serves as an official language in these countries, and is firmly established as the principal medium of instruction throughout secondary and tertiary education. However, the teaching and educational use of English during early childhood and primary education varies widely across the Pacific, both in policy and in practice. Three broad issues will be discussed. The first is the ambiguity of the status of English, which may serve as a first, second or foreign language for different children. The second is the competing space in the early English curriculum for literacy development, formal language instruction in what may be a foreign language for many, and preparation for the use of English as a medium of instruction across the rest of the curriculum. The third is teacher training, which is not currently preparing teachers adequately to teach English e...
Abstract: In this response to Mufwene’s (2017) target article we discuss the benefits and disadva... more Abstract: In this response to Mufwene’s (2017) target article we discuss the benefits and disadvantages of extending the ecology metaphor into studies of language vitality, focusing on contexts from the South Pacific. We show that an ecological perspective allows us to focus on the local and particular and can help us to avoid a simplistic reliance on broad phenomena such as ‘globalization’ to account for language endangerment and loss (LEL). However, we contend that this endeavor runs the risk of abstracting away from the human experience of LEL into a ‘survival of the fittest’ or ‘balance sheet’ approach. We conclude that, while it has benefits, the ecology metaphor does not ultimately offer a compelling basis for an overarching theory of language vitality.
This symposium addresses recent language policy developments in Vanuatu’s education system. Plann... more This symposium addresses recent language policy developments in Vanuatu’s education system. Planners in Vanuatu must contend with immense linguistic diversity, comprising around 100 vernacular languages, Bislama (a pidgin/creole that serves as national language and co-official language), and English and French (former colonial languages, co-official languages, and ‘principal languages’ of a dual-medium education system). Language debates have featured in the socio-political landscape since Independence, reflecting pressures towards tradition (the importance of the vernaculars, and recognising Bislama as a unifying force and token of national identity), and also modernity (the rise of Bislama as an urban creole, the growing importance of English, and reactions against the perceived decline in the significance of French). Bislama’s place within formal education has been particularly controversial and, while desires to include the multiplicity of small vernaculars are growing, just ask...
This chapter discusses data collected from two neighbouring schools that shows the way staff, stu... more This chapter discusses data collected from two neighbouring schools that shows the way staff, students and community members talk about the idea of English-French 'bilingualism' in multiple ways: as "double the opportunity", as an essential part of "ni-Vanuatu identity", and as part of the colonial "heritage" that people want to hold onto. It is clear that ni-Vanuatu want to keep both languages. However, inside the Anglophone school, no French is spoken; inside the Francophone school, no English is spoken; and outside school, neither language is heard at all. More importantly, proficiency levels of both English and French show some cause for concern at both schools. The medium of instruction causes a challenge for learning at both schools, and 'bilingualism' in English and French is far from reality. The symbolic construction of English/French 'bilingualism' is very present, but the functional use of either language is limited.
The University of the South Pacific (USP) is co-owned by twelve member countries of a region in w... more The University of the South Pacific (USP) is co-owned by twelve member countries of a region in which approximately 200 languages are spoken. By nature, its campuses are highly multilingual and, by default, English-a second language for the majority-is the medium of instruction. USP has long been concerned that students’ levels of English are inadequate for tertiary studies, despite their arrival from (officially) English-medium schools. At the same time, it recognises its influence on this cycle, as it trains many of the region’s English teachers. The committee established to address ‘the English problem at USP’ thus ends up strategizing on a much larger scale. Despite the enormity of the issues, progress is expected to meet stringent deadlines and targets. Understandably, such a committee does not welcome questions like “What exactly do we mean by ‘English’ here?” but, when ‘English’ is used as a proxy for so many things - the campus lingua franca; the medium through which subject...
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