A. Z. M. Iftikhar-ul-Awwal
Iftikhar-ul-Awwal is a Supernumerary Professor, and former Chairman of the Department of History at the University of Dhaka. He is primarily interested in the Economic History of Bengal during British colonial rule. Many of his articles relating to the topic of industrial development and economic condition of colonial Bengal have been published in peer-reviewed journals and books. Many of his articles were also published in organizational newsletters and leading Bangladeshi newspapers.
Iftikhar-ul-Awwal was born in Dhaka on 30th December, 1947, and had his schooling at Faujdarhat Cadet College, Chittagong. He won the Talent Scholarship for his Secondary School Certificate examination results in 1966, and later on won the Chairman's Silver Medal by the Governing Body of Faujdarhat Cadet College for securing fifth position in the Higher Secondary Certificate Examination in Comilla Board in 1968. He also secured the Inter-wing Scholarship in 1968, and went on to study in Government College Lahore at University of the Punjab, and subsequently graduated with honours in History in 1971. He was awarded the academic Roll of Honour by Government Collage Lahore for obtaining first position in First Class in his B.A. (Hons.) examinations. He obtained his M.A. in History from University of Dhaka in 1972, and won the Dhaka University Book Prize for securing first position in First Class in his M.A. examinations. After securing the Commonwealth Scholarship (1974-77), he went on to study in the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) at the University of London for his PhD in 1974. He studied under the supervision of Professor K. N. Chaudhuri, and subsequently obtained his PhD in January, 1979.
Professor Awwal was a Visiting Fulbright Scholar at Temple University, Philadelphia and at the University of Pennsylvania under American Research Fellowship Award by United States Information Agency in 1988. He was a Commonwealth Fellow at SOAS, University of London in 1988-89; and a Japan Foundation Fellow in the Institute of Oriental Culture at the University of Tokyo in 1995-95.
Iftikhar-ul-Awwal joined the University of Dhaka as a Lecturer of History in 1973, and currently serving as a Selection Grade Professor at the same University. Professor Awwal was the Chairman of the Department of History at University of Dhaka from 1999 to 2002. He served as the Director General of Bangladesh National Museum from 2002 to 2004.
Address: Dhaka, Bangladesh
Iftikhar-ul-Awwal was born in Dhaka on 30th December, 1947, and had his schooling at Faujdarhat Cadet College, Chittagong. He won the Talent Scholarship for his Secondary School Certificate examination results in 1966, and later on won the Chairman's Silver Medal by the Governing Body of Faujdarhat Cadet College for securing fifth position in the Higher Secondary Certificate Examination in Comilla Board in 1968. He also secured the Inter-wing Scholarship in 1968, and went on to study in Government College Lahore at University of the Punjab, and subsequently graduated with honours in History in 1971. He was awarded the academic Roll of Honour by Government Collage Lahore for obtaining first position in First Class in his B.A. (Hons.) examinations. He obtained his M.A. in History from University of Dhaka in 1972, and won the Dhaka University Book Prize for securing first position in First Class in his M.A. examinations. After securing the Commonwealth Scholarship (1974-77), he went on to study in the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) at the University of London for his PhD in 1974. He studied under the supervision of Professor K. N. Chaudhuri, and subsequently obtained his PhD in January, 1979.
Professor Awwal was a Visiting Fulbright Scholar at Temple University, Philadelphia and at the University of Pennsylvania under American Research Fellowship Award by United States Information Agency in 1988. He was a Commonwealth Fellow at SOAS, University of London in 1988-89; and a Japan Foundation Fellow in the Institute of Oriental Culture at the University of Tokyo in 1995-95.
Iftikhar-ul-Awwal joined the University of Dhaka as a Lecturer of History in 1973, and currently serving as a Selection Grade Professor at the same University. Professor Awwal was the Chairman of the Department of History at University of Dhaka from 1999 to 2002. He served as the Director General of Bangladesh National Museum from 2002 to 2004.
Address: Dhaka, Bangladesh
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PREFACE:
The present work examines the industrial experience of Bengal during the period 1900 to 1939 with particular emphasis on the role of the government as the main instrument for growth. For this work, available statistical material has been utilized for the sake of precision as well as to strengthen the qualitative evidence. The book contains eight chapters. While Chapter I builds up the case for industrial development, Chapter II examines in detail the industrial policy of the Bengal government in the light of its own limitations as a subordinate authority to the Government of India and that of Whitehall. Chapter III is an investigation of the labour market in Bengal with emphasis on the supply of labour to jute, tea and coal industries in relation to wages and conditions of work. In Chapter IV, I have examined the rates of proļ¬tability and security of industrial investments. In this chapter, I have also examined the ļ¬nancial institutions of the time and their role in the industrial development of the province. Chapter V points to some of the difficulties experienced by Indian entrepreneurs, and in the above light looks at their contribution to the larger industrial establishments of Bengal. The next two Chapters VI and VII examine the growth and development of the two biggest manufacturing industries of our period--jute and handloom cotton weaving industries. The concluding chapter is an estimate of the industrial progress made in the province during the period under review.
This book is a slightly revised version of my Ph.D. thesis submitted to the University of London in 1978. In the preparation of this thesis, I have accumulated an enormous debt of gratitude to my Supervisor, Dr. K. N. Chaudhuri whose careful vigilance and timely intervention saved me from many factual errors and infelicities of style. My thanks are also due to Mr. I. B. Harrison, who went through some of my preliminary chapters during the absence of Dr Chaudhuri in 1975-76 and made many useful observations. I am also indebted to Dr. Sirajul Islam of Dacca University for helping me with some necessary corrections.
Here I take this opportunity also to express my deep gratitude to the UK Commonwealth Commission which offered me a scholarship for three years which enabled me to undertake this research work. Needless to say, without their ļ¬nancial help it would have been virtually impossible to pursue this course of studies. I also wish to thank the University of Dacca for granting me the necessary study leave.
There remains also a special group of people - without whose co-operation, patience and tolerance, this work would not have seen the light of day. In this group belong the library staff of the British Library (including the Newspaper Section at Colindale), Senate House Library, the library of the School of Oriental and African Studies, and particularly, the India Office Library and Records (including their Newspaper Section at the Bush House). I take this opportunity to thank Mr. J. Sims of the India Office Library and Records for being so helpful in tracking down apparently untraceable official documents. I wish to thank the staff of the Bangladesh Secretariat Record Room and of the Secretariat Library, Dacca for extending me all possible facilities in carrying out my research work. Finally, I owe a special debt of gratitude to my wife, Lilly whose support and constant encouragement over these years was invaluable in completing this work.
Papers in Peer-Reviewed Journals by A. Z. M. Iftikhar-ul-Awwal
The pioneering role of the state in the industrialisation of the West and Japan are shining examples in this direction. This was exactly what the people of India also demanded from the state. They piously hoped that by the joint cooperation of the Government and the people, there appears to be no reason why India, with all its natural advantages, should not reach equal, if not a higher standard among the manufacturing nations of the world. But were their expectations fulfilled? Did the government (government at all levels) pay heed to the needs and potential of industrial, development? If so, how large was their participation? This paper is an attempt to bring forth the amount and degree of state endeavours in resolving the basic problems of Bengal's industrialisation.
The paper is divided into five sections. Policy measures pertaining to tariff questions, stores purchase, the question of capital supply and enterprise are discussed in the first four sections, and the fifth is a general survey of the industrial activities of the government during the period under review.
In this paper an attempt has been made to examine certain aspects of the Bengal State Aid to Industries Act, 1931. This has been done in three parts. Part I deals with the course of events leading to the passing of the Act. Part II is a critical study of its working while Part III evaluates its performance in Bengal till 1947. The various moves made to amend the Act and the Rules enacted thereunder are also discussed in Part III.
As it is not possible to study in detail all aspects of the issue in such a short paper, we intend to limit ourselves to certain aspects of it. Section I examines the working of voluntary maternity benefit schemes in the British Indian mines. Section II deals with the enactment of the Indian Mines Maternity Benefit Act, 1941, which was put in the statute book 'to regulate the employment of women in mines for a certain period before and after childbirth and to provide for payment of maternity benefit to them'. It also critically examines the main provisions of the Act. Section III is a study of the working of the Act.
The International Labour Organization founded at the end of World War I to secure and maintain fair and humane conditions of labour in their very first conference held at Washington in 1919 recommended its member states including India the necessity of providing adequate maternity benefit to their female labour employed in the industrial establishments. The main provisions of the draft convention (stipulated in articles 3 & 4) were : (a) rest periods of six weeks before and after confinement (b) sufficient maintenance for the mother and child including the provision of free attendance by a doctor or a midwife (c) an allowance of half-an-hour twice daily for nursing the child, and (d) security against dismissal on account of absence due to confinement. Ever since the adoption of this convention at Washington, the question of maternity benefit had become a subject of incessant debate and discussion in India both inside and outside the legislature. As it is not possible to study in detail all aspects of the issue in a short paper like this, we intend to limit ourselves to the working of voluntary maternity benefit schemes in the British Indian mines. However, before we go to examine the working of such schemes, it will not be impertinent to throw some light on the background which led to the adoption of voluntary maternity benefit schemes for female labour working in Indian industries. The background is discussed in Section I and the working of the schemes in Section II.
In addition to wages, labour supply also to a very great extent depended upon the conditions of work. Such conditions included a host of factors a more kindly and sympathetic management, better housing, congenial working hours, the healthiness of a place, the supply of good and sufficient filtered water, accessibility to a good bazaar, and freedom from interference.
In this paper we propose to study the question of labour supply in the tea industry of Bengal in relation to wages and conditions of work and will endeavour to find out how far those factors were conducive to the supply of labour and to what degrees.
In this short article, an attempt will be made not to study the causative factors which led to its poroliferation or to study the structure and composition of these marauding robbers or to assess the results of the government's antidacoity drive, but to critically analyse - the mode of collection and compilation of dacoity statistics, their annual incidence, and distribution in the various Bengal districts. An attempt will also be made therein to explain the regional and seasonal variations of this crime. The nature or motivation which led to dacoity will be the subject matter of Section II of this essay.
In this article, an attempt will be made to throw some light on the activities of the Dacoity Commission instituted in April, 1852 for the suppression of dacoity in Bengal. Part I is a background leading to the institution of the office of the Dacoity Commissioner along with a short account of the early efforts at controlling dacoity. It also discusses the organizational set-up of the Office of Dacoity Commissioner and the methods employed for the apprehension and committal of criminals. The drive against the suppression of professional gangs, both in land and in water, in the various districts of Bengal is the subject-matter of Part II. The results of the campaign is discussed in Part III, along with a brief commentary on the reasons for the abolition of the Office of Dacoity Commissioner.
In this paper, an attempt will be made to bring to light the various aspects of murder as it manifested itself in the late nineteenth century. In Part I, the incidence and volume of murder together with its various features will be examined. We will seek, in Part II, to locate the probable causes behind the rise of such a murder wave. Remedial measures adopted to check the epidemic of murder with their consequent results and reaction will be the subject matter of discussion in Part III.
Book Sections by A. Z. M. Iftikhar-ul-Awwal
The wealth of this nation was created of course by the bounteous soil of the region which produced a wide variety of agricultural commodities like rice, wheat and other grains, sugarcane, cotton, opium, indigo, oils of different kinds and vegetables. Other economic products found in abundance were lacca, wax, long pepper, salt and saltpetre. But more than anything else Bengal was then the general storehouse of a wide variety of cotton and silk products not only for Hindustan of the Empire of the Great Mughal, but also for the Kingdom and for Europe itself. The goods so manufactured were not only known for their exquisite fineness and delicacy of workmanship but were also relatively cheap. Bengal's industrial economy during the pre-colonial period compared thus very favourably with that of any nation on earth.
In this chapter, an attempt will be made to study the state of the major indigenous industries during the colonial period. An attempt will also be made to explain the causes of their ultimate collapse. In this connection, the role of the state which could stimulate or inhibit industrial development would be looked into to ascertain the real motive of British rule. Did they create an appropriate climate for promoting and encouraging indigenous industrial enterprises? Was the destruction due to natural causes or was it deliberate? The economic policies of the colonial state in relation to industries need, therefore, also to be looked into to ascertain the total effect of such policies on the domestic manufacturing industries.
In this paper, however, we intend to focus our attention solely on the cotton textile industry of Bengal from 1900 till the end of the colonial period in 1947. In other words, we shall be looking both at the cotton mill industry of the province that was set up as a result of emergence of modern factory system in India as well as at the handloom industry, Thus by avoiding a fragmentary study, we shall have a complete glimpse of the cotton textile industry as a whole. We shall then also be able to evaluate the contribution of each branch of the textile industry to the economy of Bengal.
In Bengal, the concept of maternity benefit was unknown until the question was discussed at the first annual meeting of the International Labour Conference in Washington in 1919. The Washington conference, at which India was a participant, adopted a draft convention to regulate the employment of women both before and after childbirth. The main provisions of the draft convention (stipulated in articles 3 and 4) were: (a) rest periods of six weeks before and after confinement; (b) maternity benefits; (c) nursing facilities and (d) guarantee of reinstatement in employment after leave. Since the adoption of the draft convention, the question of maternity benefit drew the attention of all those concerned with labour problem in Indian industries.
This paper is concerned with the attitudes of the government and the business community towards maternity benefit for female labour working in the factories and in the plantations of Bengal.
Edited Books by A. Z. M. Iftikhar-ul-Awwal
Note: The textual descriptions in the book are written in English & Bengali.
English Abstract: The book consists of 55 essays that eruditely analyses the past, present and future of Dhaka city. These essays were presented on a symposium that took place from 7th November to 13th November, 1989 at the Bangladesh National Museum. The essays were written and presented by renowned academics, researchers, authors and artists from Bangladesh. Professor Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Awwal, who was the Director General (2002-2004) of Bangladesh National Museum, edited these scholarly essays to bring it under one cover in 2003.
Note: The book is written in Bengali.
Newspaper Articles by A. Z. M. Iftikhar-ul-Awwal
PREFACE:
The present work examines the industrial experience of Bengal during the period 1900 to 1939 with particular emphasis on the role of the government as the main instrument for growth. For this work, available statistical material has been utilized for the sake of precision as well as to strengthen the qualitative evidence. The book contains eight chapters. While Chapter I builds up the case for industrial development, Chapter II examines in detail the industrial policy of the Bengal government in the light of its own limitations as a subordinate authority to the Government of India and that of Whitehall. Chapter III is an investigation of the labour market in Bengal with emphasis on the supply of labour to jute, tea and coal industries in relation to wages and conditions of work. In Chapter IV, I have examined the rates of proļ¬tability and security of industrial investments. In this chapter, I have also examined the ļ¬nancial institutions of the time and their role in the industrial development of the province. Chapter V points to some of the difficulties experienced by Indian entrepreneurs, and in the above light looks at their contribution to the larger industrial establishments of Bengal. The next two Chapters VI and VII examine the growth and development of the two biggest manufacturing industries of our period--jute and handloom cotton weaving industries. The concluding chapter is an estimate of the industrial progress made in the province during the period under review.
This book is a slightly revised version of my Ph.D. thesis submitted to the University of London in 1978. In the preparation of this thesis, I have accumulated an enormous debt of gratitude to my Supervisor, Dr. K. N. Chaudhuri whose careful vigilance and timely intervention saved me from many factual errors and infelicities of style. My thanks are also due to Mr. I. B. Harrison, who went through some of my preliminary chapters during the absence of Dr Chaudhuri in 1975-76 and made many useful observations. I am also indebted to Dr. Sirajul Islam of Dacca University for helping me with some necessary corrections.
Here I take this opportunity also to express my deep gratitude to the UK Commonwealth Commission which offered me a scholarship for three years which enabled me to undertake this research work. Needless to say, without their ļ¬nancial help it would have been virtually impossible to pursue this course of studies. I also wish to thank the University of Dacca for granting me the necessary study leave.
There remains also a special group of people - without whose co-operation, patience and tolerance, this work would not have seen the light of day. In this group belong the library staff of the British Library (including the Newspaper Section at Colindale), Senate House Library, the library of the School of Oriental and African Studies, and particularly, the India Office Library and Records (including their Newspaper Section at the Bush House). I take this opportunity to thank Mr. J. Sims of the India Office Library and Records for being so helpful in tracking down apparently untraceable official documents. I wish to thank the staff of the Bangladesh Secretariat Record Room and of the Secretariat Library, Dacca for extending me all possible facilities in carrying out my research work. Finally, I owe a special debt of gratitude to my wife, Lilly whose support and constant encouragement over these years was invaluable in completing this work.
The pioneering role of the state in the industrialisation of the West and Japan are shining examples in this direction. This was exactly what the people of India also demanded from the state. They piously hoped that by the joint cooperation of the Government and the people, there appears to be no reason why India, with all its natural advantages, should not reach equal, if not a higher standard among the manufacturing nations of the world. But were their expectations fulfilled? Did the government (government at all levels) pay heed to the needs and potential of industrial, development? If so, how large was their participation? This paper is an attempt to bring forth the amount and degree of state endeavours in resolving the basic problems of Bengal's industrialisation.
The paper is divided into five sections. Policy measures pertaining to tariff questions, stores purchase, the question of capital supply and enterprise are discussed in the first four sections, and the fifth is a general survey of the industrial activities of the government during the period under review.
In this paper an attempt has been made to examine certain aspects of the Bengal State Aid to Industries Act, 1931. This has been done in three parts. Part I deals with the course of events leading to the passing of the Act. Part II is a critical study of its working while Part III evaluates its performance in Bengal till 1947. The various moves made to amend the Act and the Rules enacted thereunder are also discussed in Part III.
As it is not possible to study in detail all aspects of the issue in such a short paper, we intend to limit ourselves to certain aspects of it. Section I examines the working of voluntary maternity benefit schemes in the British Indian mines. Section II deals with the enactment of the Indian Mines Maternity Benefit Act, 1941, which was put in the statute book 'to regulate the employment of women in mines for a certain period before and after childbirth and to provide for payment of maternity benefit to them'. It also critically examines the main provisions of the Act. Section III is a study of the working of the Act.
The International Labour Organization founded at the end of World War I to secure and maintain fair and humane conditions of labour in their very first conference held at Washington in 1919 recommended its member states including India the necessity of providing adequate maternity benefit to their female labour employed in the industrial establishments. The main provisions of the draft convention (stipulated in articles 3 & 4) were : (a) rest periods of six weeks before and after confinement (b) sufficient maintenance for the mother and child including the provision of free attendance by a doctor or a midwife (c) an allowance of half-an-hour twice daily for nursing the child, and (d) security against dismissal on account of absence due to confinement. Ever since the adoption of this convention at Washington, the question of maternity benefit had become a subject of incessant debate and discussion in India both inside and outside the legislature. As it is not possible to study in detail all aspects of the issue in a short paper like this, we intend to limit ourselves to the working of voluntary maternity benefit schemes in the British Indian mines. However, before we go to examine the working of such schemes, it will not be impertinent to throw some light on the background which led to the adoption of voluntary maternity benefit schemes for female labour working in Indian industries. The background is discussed in Section I and the working of the schemes in Section II.
In addition to wages, labour supply also to a very great extent depended upon the conditions of work. Such conditions included a host of factors a more kindly and sympathetic management, better housing, congenial working hours, the healthiness of a place, the supply of good and sufficient filtered water, accessibility to a good bazaar, and freedom from interference.
In this paper we propose to study the question of labour supply in the tea industry of Bengal in relation to wages and conditions of work and will endeavour to find out how far those factors were conducive to the supply of labour and to what degrees.
In this short article, an attempt will be made not to study the causative factors which led to its poroliferation or to study the structure and composition of these marauding robbers or to assess the results of the government's antidacoity drive, but to critically analyse - the mode of collection and compilation of dacoity statistics, their annual incidence, and distribution in the various Bengal districts. An attempt will also be made therein to explain the regional and seasonal variations of this crime. The nature or motivation which led to dacoity will be the subject matter of Section II of this essay.
In this article, an attempt will be made to throw some light on the activities of the Dacoity Commission instituted in April, 1852 for the suppression of dacoity in Bengal. Part I is a background leading to the institution of the office of the Dacoity Commissioner along with a short account of the early efforts at controlling dacoity. It also discusses the organizational set-up of the Office of Dacoity Commissioner and the methods employed for the apprehension and committal of criminals. The drive against the suppression of professional gangs, both in land and in water, in the various districts of Bengal is the subject-matter of Part II. The results of the campaign is discussed in Part III, along with a brief commentary on the reasons for the abolition of the Office of Dacoity Commissioner.
In this paper, an attempt will be made to bring to light the various aspects of murder as it manifested itself in the late nineteenth century. In Part I, the incidence and volume of murder together with its various features will be examined. We will seek, in Part II, to locate the probable causes behind the rise of such a murder wave. Remedial measures adopted to check the epidemic of murder with their consequent results and reaction will be the subject matter of discussion in Part III.
The wealth of this nation was created of course by the bounteous soil of the region which produced a wide variety of agricultural commodities like rice, wheat and other grains, sugarcane, cotton, opium, indigo, oils of different kinds and vegetables. Other economic products found in abundance were lacca, wax, long pepper, salt and saltpetre. But more than anything else Bengal was then the general storehouse of a wide variety of cotton and silk products not only for Hindustan of the Empire of the Great Mughal, but also for the Kingdom and for Europe itself. The goods so manufactured were not only known for their exquisite fineness and delicacy of workmanship but were also relatively cheap. Bengal's industrial economy during the pre-colonial period compared thus very favourably with that of any nation on earth.
In this chapter, an attempt will be made to study the state of the major indigenous industries during the colonial period. An attempt will also be made to explain the causes of their ultimate collapse. In this connection, the role of the state which could stimulate or inhibit industrial development would be looked into to ascertain the real motive of British rule. Did they create an appropriate climate for promoting and encouraging indigenous industrial enterprises? Was the destruction due to natural causes or was it deliberate? The economic policies of the colonial state in relation to industries need, therefore, also to be looked into to ascertain the total effect of such policies on the domestic manufacturing industries.
In this paper, however, we intend to focus our attention solely on the cotton textile industry of Bengal from 1900 till the end of the colonial period in 1947. In other words, we shall be looking both at the cotton mill industry of the province that was set up as a result of emergence of modern factory system in India as well as at the handloom industry, Thus by avoiding a fragmentary study, we shall have a complete glimpse of the cotton textile industry as a whole. We shall then also be able to evaluate the contribution of each branch of the textile industry to the economy of Bengal.
In Bengal, the concept of maternity benefit was unknown until the question was discussed at the first annual meeting of the International Labour Conference in Washington in 1919. The Washington conference, at which India was a participant, adopted a draft convention to regulate the employment of women both before and after childbirth. The main provisions of the draft convention (stipulated in articles 3 and 4) were: (a) rest periods of six weeks before and after confinement; (b) maternity benefits; (c) nursing facilities and (d) guarantee of reinstatement in employment after leave. Since the adoption of the draft convention, the question of maternity benefit drew the attention of all those concerned with labour problem in Indian industries.
This paper is concerned with the attitudes of the government and the business community towards maternity benefit for female labour working in the factories and in the plantations of Bengal.
Note: The textual descriptions in the book are written in English & Bengali.
English Abstract: The book consists of 55 essays that eruditely analyses the past, present and future of Dhaka city. These essays were presented on a symposium that took place from 7th November to 13th November, 1989 at the Bangladesh National Museum. The essays were written and presented by renowned academics, researchers, authors and artists from Bangladesh. Professor Dr. Iftikhar-ul-Awwal, who was the Director General (2002-2004) of Bangladesh National Museum, edited these scholarly essays to bring it under one cover in 2003.
Note: The book is written in Bengali.