The aim of this work was to investigate competence and warmth — the two basic dimensions of socia... more The aim of this work was to investigate competence and warmth — the two basic dimensions of social judgment — as dimensions employees use to evaluate their supervisors. A mediation model was tested in which supervisor's perceived competence and warmth were associated with relevant outcomes (lower burnout, weaker turnover intentions, more frequent citizenship behaviors) through the mediation of affective organizational commitment (AOC). In Study 1, data were collected from employees of a company in the water service sector. In Study 2, participants were financial promoters. In Study 3, the sample included employees from different organizations. As hypothesized, the perception of one's supervisor as competent (Studies 1-3) and warm (Study 3) was related to employees' lower burnout, weaker turnover intentions, more frequent prosocial behaviors through the mediation of AOC. Theoretical and practical implications of findings are discussed. A review by Cuddy, Glick, and Beninger (2011) has underlined the key role played by warmth and competence in social judgments about individuals and groups. The prominence of these traits relies on the fact they answer critical socio-functional questions about others, which gained increasing importance throughout human evolutionary history (see Fiske, Cuddy, & Glick, 2007), and on their generality across cultures (Cuddy et al., 2009). The perception of warmth versus lacking warmth may indicate whether or not others can be expected to have positive or negative intentions toward us, while the perception of competence versus incompetence
In the present study, competence and warmth, the two fundamental dimensions of social judgment, p... more In the present study, competence and warmth, the two fundamental dimensions of social judgment, postulated by the stereotype content model (SCM), are considered as leaders' traits. In particular, we investigated whether the attribution of competence and warmth to one's own supervisor is related to em-ployees' organizational commitment. Furthermore, we hypothesized that the mechanism underpinning this relation was the satisfaction of the basic psychological needs — competence, autonomy, and relat-edness — conceptualized by self-determination theory. To test our hypotheses a cross-sectional study was conducted, examining metalworkers (N = 120) of an engineering industry. Participants filled out a questionnaire, including measures of evaluations regarding one's supervisor, satisfaction of basic needs at work, and organizational commitment. Indirect effects of leader's perceived competence and perceived warmth on organizational commitment were tested using PROCESS. Results showed that warmth ascribed to the leader, but not competence, was positively related to organizational commitment, this relationship being mediated by the satisfaction of the need for autonomy. Our findings establish a link between warmth ascribed to one's supervisor and employees' organizational commitment, suggesting the usefulness of considering warmth and competence as leader traits in organizational contexts.
In this contribution, we review the studies which have investigated humanity attributions in medi... more In this contribution, we review the studies which have investigated humanity attributions in medical contexts. They evidence patient infrahumanization effects; healthcare professionals working in hospitals perceive patients as less characterized than physicians and nurses by the unique features of human species. It has also been found that the attribution of a lower human status to patients is associated with lower perceptions of stress and burnout. In addition, patient dehumanization may facilitate clinical problem solving. We support the position that patient dehumanization is a dysfunctional strategy to cope with stress; stress can be limited in other ways, for instance by taking appropriate organizational measures. Concerning clinical problem solving, physicians should find a balance between sharing pa-tients' emotions and performing clinical tasks. Future research should investigate whether healthcare providers' dehumanizing perceptions affect patients' self-evaluations, patients' satisfaction with care, and their adherence to medical treatments. In medical contexts — hospitals, nursing or retirement homes — we sometimes observe behaviors which offend the patients' dignity, for instance: nurses using baby talk when speaking to elders (O'Connor & Rigby, 1996); nurses enacting various forms of aggressive behavior when interacting with mentally ill patients; healthcare professionals reserving a different treatment to patients belonging to their own or another racial/ethnic group. We believe that one cause of these degrading, aggressive, and discriminatory behaviors is the unconscious attribution of a lower human status to patients. Dehumanization of persons and groups has become a burgeoning area of research in social psychology, as it appears from the many reviews on this subject (see Haslam & Loughnan, Miranda, 2012). However, although research has investigated a wide array of issues, such as the factors contributing to dehumanization and its consequences and implications , little has been done in the area of medical interactions (see Leyens, 2014). In the current contribution we will analyze the causes and functions of patient dehumani-zation, following Haque and Waytz' (2012) approach. We will then review recent research regarding patient dehumanization functions and the usefulness of suppressing empathy when solv
In this study new methods were proposed to elicit and measure the components of a social represen... more In this study new methods were proposed to elicit and measure the components of a social representation. To elicit the representation field - the structure of the beliefs relative to the object - we applied the laddering technique, devised by Bagozzi and Edwards (1998) to measure cognitive schemas. The use of indices, proposed in network literature (see, e.g., Faust &
Across three studies, we examined whether ingroup status may affect intergroup perceptions of hum... more Across three studies, we examined whether ingroup status may affect intergroup perceptions of humanity. In Studies 1 and 2, we considered real groups: Northern versus Southern Italians; in Study 3, we manipulated the socioeconomic status of two minimal groups. In all studies, members of higher status groups perceived the ingroup as more human than the outgroup, while members of lower status groups did not assign a privileged human status to the ingroup. Such findings were obtained using different implicit techniques: the Implicit Association Test (IAT) and the Go/No-go Association Task (GNAT). Further, results suggest that the different perceptions of humanity may depend on the stereotypic traits generally ascribed to higher and lower status groups. The implications of results for infrahumanization research are discussed.
In two studies, we tested the hypothesis that categorization of ambiguous human/ape faces depends... more In two studies, we tested the hypothesis that categorization of ambiguous human/ape faces depends on group membership: people are inclined to protect ingroup humanity, but not that of the outgroup. We used as stimuli: human, ape, ambiguous human/ape faces. Ambiguous human/ape faces were generated using a computerized morphing procedure. Participants categorized stimuli as human or ape. Two conditions were introduced: in the ingroup condition, participants were informed that human exemplars were ingroup members, in the outgroup condition that they were outgroup members. We expected participants, in an effort to protect ingroup humanity, to categorize ambiguous stimuli as ape more often in the ingroup than outgroup condition. Predictions were confirmed. Results are discussed in the context of infrahumanization theory.
Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 2012
ABSTRACT Image theory was used in this study to assess the images that Italian adults with differ... more ABSTRACT Image theory was used in this study to assess the images that Italian adults with different political ideologies have of the United States. In addition to the ally, barbarian, enemy, and imperialist images, a new image, that of the father, was introduced. It was found that right-wing respondents endorsed the father and ally images of Americans, while left-wing respondents perceived Americans as barbarians. The theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.
ABSTRACT In this article, dehumanization of patients was studied as a strategy used by nurses to ... more ABSTRACT In this article, dehumanization of patients was studied as a strategy used by nurses to cope with stress. Affective organizational commitment (AOC) and affective commitment to patients (ACP) were tested as moderators. We also explored how nurses' humanity attributions to their in-group relate to stress symptoms. Participants were nurses working in different wards of an Italian urban hospital. Findings showed that perceiving patients as not fully human was related to lower levels of stress symptoms for nurses with high AOC and ACP, but not for nurses with low AOC and ACP. Moreover, for highly committed nurses, the attribution of uniquely human traits to the in-group was associated with increased stress symptoms. Implications of findings for the relationship between nurses and patients are discussed.
Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 2013
We evaluated the relationship between workaholism and 2 individual difference variables relevant ... more We evaluated the relationship between workaholism and 2 individual difference variables relevant to an organizational context, namely: proactive personality and locomotion orientation. Specifically, we examined working excessively (WE), working compulsively (WC), and perceived self-efficacy, proactivity, and locomotion in a sample of nurses working in an Italian public hospital. Data were analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling. Because WE and WC were not distinct factors, a unitary workaholism factor was used when applying regression analysis. As expected, workaholism was related negatively to proactivity, and positively to locomotion. In contrast, its relationship with self-efficacy was nonsignificant. The practical implications of our findings and future research directions are discussed.
Over the past 15 years, outgroup dehumanization has been a topic of great interest in the field o... more Over the past 15 years, outgroup dehumanization has been a topic of great interest in the field of social psychology. Researchers have in particular investigated the different forms of dehumanization and its detrimental consequences; however, little attention has been paid to the problem of how dehumanizing perceptions can be reduced. In this article, we review the studies that investigate whether intergroup contact may be related to more favorable humanity attributions. Different forms of contact have been considered: direct and imagined contact, cross-group friendships, and extended contact. Evidence regarding direct and imagined contact allows us to conclude that contact attenuates infrahumanization and favors outgroup humanization. For direct and indirect cross-group friendships, in contrast, the association between contact and ameliorated humanity attributions is only supported by correlational evidence. We conclude with a discussion of the practical implications of the studies reviewed, and propose directions for future research.
... Federica Durante University of Milan–Bicocca ... E-mail: [email protected] andgiulio.bocc... more ... Federica Durante University of Milan–Bicocca ... E-mail: [email protected][email protected]. Page 2. ... However, faster latencies in classifying ape rather than human faces, when preceded by outgroup names, would suggest a de-humanization effect. ...
The aim of this experiment is to examine whether communicating the results of social psychologica... more The aim of this experiment is to examine whether communicating the results of social psychological research improves out-group stereotypes and diminishes in-group bias. The experimental material consisted of 2 communications: one described Hamilton and Gifford's (1 976) experiment on illusory correlation (Experiment 1); the other described Sherif's (1 966) studies on summer camps. The results of the present experiment show that knowledge of Sherif's findings had no effect on evaluations, whereas an awareness of the experiment on illusory correlation produced a boomerang effect, accentuating, rather than diminishing, in-group bias. A second experiment revealed that the persuasive power of a scientific message on stereotypes depends on whether in-groups and out-groups are cognitively present in the message acquisition phase.
The aim of the present paper was to test whether cross-group friendships and extended contact (kn... more The aim of the present paper was to test whether cross-group friendships and extended contact (knowing that ingroup members have a friendly relationship with outgroup members) are related to reduced outgroup infrahumanization. The relationship between heterosexuals and homosexuals was considered. Participants were university students; all were heterosexual. A questionnaire was used and structural equation models were evaluated. Findings showed that only extended contact was related to reduced infrahumanization and increased outgroup humanization; the key-mediator in these relationships was the mechanism of including the outgroup in the self. Practical implications of findings are discussed.
ABSTRACT In this article, dehumanization of patients was studied as a strategy used by nurses to ... more ABSTRACT In this article, dehumanization of patients was studied as a strategy used by nurses to cope with stress. Affective organizational commitment (AOC) and affective commitment to patients (ACP) were tested as moderators. We also explored how nurses' humanity attributions to their in-group relate to stress symptoms. Participants were nurses working in different wards of an Italian urban hospital. Findings showed that perceiving patients as not fully human was related to lower levels of stress symptoms for nurses with high AOC and ACP, but not for nurses with low AOC and ACP. Moreover, for highly committed nurses, the attribution of uniquely human traits to the in-group was associated with increased stress symptoms. Implications of findings for the relationship between nurses and patients are discussed.
Past research, based on explicit measures, has shown that Americans are rated as competent but no... more Past research, based on explicit measures, has shown that Americans are rated as competent but not warm. In the present study, we assessed the implicit stereotype of Americans along the two dimensions of competence and warmth. Participants (Italian university students) completed a Go/No-go Association Task, in which Americans and Italians were the target categories and competence and warmth the target attributes. They also completed a questionnaire measuring three individual difference variables, namely Social Dominance Orientation, national identification, and political orientation. We hypothesized that Americans would be more associated with competence than warmth; we also expected Americans to be more associated with competence and less with warmth than Italians. Predictions were supported. The implicit associations were not correlated with the individual difference variables, thus suggesting they are a reflection of a well-learned cultural stereotype of Americans.
Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 2012
ABSTRACT Image theory was used in this study to assess the images that Italian adults with differ... more ABSTRACT Image theory was used in this study to assess the images that Italian adults with different political ideologies have of the United States. In addition to the ally, barbarian, enemy, and imperialist images, a new image, that of the father, was introduced. It was found that right-wing respondents endorsed the father and ally images of Americans, while left-wing respondents perceived Americans as barbarians. The theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.
The aim of this work was to investigate competence and warmth — the two basic dimensions of socia... more The aim of this work was to investigate competence and warmth — the two basic dimensions of social judgment — as dimensions employees use to evaluate their supervisors. A mediation model was tested in which supervisor's perceived competence and warmth were associated with relevant outcomes (lower burnout, weaker turnover intentions, more frequent citizenship behaviors) through the mediation of affective organizational commitment (AOC). In Study 1, data were collected from employees of a company in the water service sector. In Study 2, participants were financial promoters. In Study 3, the sample included employees from different organizations. As hypothesized, the perception of one's supervisor as competent (Studies 1-3) and warm (Study 3) was related to employees' lower burnout, weaker turnover intentions, more frequent prosocial behaviors through the mediation of AOC. Theoretical and practical implications of findings are discussed. A review by Cuddy, Glick, and Beninger (2011) has underlined the key role played by warmth and competence in social judgments about individuals and groups. The prominence of these traits relies on the fact they answer critical socio-functional questions about others, which gained increasing importance throughout human evolutionary history (see Fiske, Cuddy, & Glick, 2007), and on their generality across cultures (Cuddy et al., 2009). The perception of warmth versus lacking warmth may indicate whether or not others can be expected to have positive or negative intentions toward us, while the perception of competence versus incompetence
In the present study, competence and warmth, the two fundamental dimensions of social judgment, p... more In the present study, competence and warmth, the two fundamental dimensions of social judgment, postulated by the stereotype content model (SCM), are considered as leaders' traits. In particular, we investigated whether the attribution of competence and warmth to one's own supervisor is related to em-ployees' organizational commitment. Furthermore, we hypothesized that the mechanism underpinning this relation was the satisfaction of the basic psychological needs — competence, autonomy, and relat-edness — conceptualized by self-determination theory. To test our hypotheses a cross-sectional study was conducted, examining metalworkers (N = 120) of an engineering industry. Participants filled out a questionnaire, including measures of evaluations regarding one's supervisor, satisfaction of basic needs at work, and organizational commitment. Indirect effects of leader's perceived competence and perceived warmth on organizational commitment were tested using PROCESS. Results showed that warmth ascribed to the leader, but not competence, was positively related to organizational commitment, this relationship being mediated by the satisfaction of the need for autonomy. Our findings establish a link between warmth ascribed to one's supervisor and employees' organizational commitment, suggesting the usefulness of considering warmth and competence as leader traits in organizational contexts.
In this contribution, we review the studies which have investigated humanity attributions in medi... more In this contribution, we review the studies which have investigated humanity attributions in medical contexts. They evidence patient infrahumanization effects; healthcare professionals working in hospitals perceive patients as less characterized than physicians and nurses by the unique features of human species. It has also been found that the attribution of a lower human status to patients is associated with lower perceptions of stress and burnout. In addition, patient dehumanization may facilitate clinical problem solving. We support the position that patient dehumanization is a dysfunctional strategy to cope with stress; stress can be limited in other ways, for instance by taking appropriate organizational measures. Concerning clinical problem solving, physicians should find a balance between sharing pa-tients' emotions and performing clinical tasks. Future research should investigate whether healthcare providers' dehumanizing perceptions affect patients' self-evaluations, patients' satisfaction with care, and their adherence to medical treatments. In medical contexts — hospitals, nursing or retirement homes — we sometimes observe behaviors which offend the patients' dignity, for instance: nurses using baby talk when speaking to elders (O'Connor & Rigby, 1996); nurses enacting various forms of aggressive behavior when interacting with mentally ill patients; healthcare professionals reserving a different treatment to patients belonging to their own or another racial/ethnic group. We believe that one cause of these degrading, aggressive, and discriminatory behaviors is the unconscious attribution of a lower human status to patients. Dehumanization of persons and groups has become a burgeoning area of research in social psychology, as it appears from the many reviews on this subject (see Haslam & Loughnan, Miranda, 2012). However, although research has investigated a wide array of issues, such as the factors contributing to dehumanization and its consequences and implications , little has been done in the area of medical interactions (see Leyens, 2014). In the current contribution we will analyze the causes and functions of patient dehumani-zation, following Haque and Waytz' (2012) approach. We will then review recent research regarding patient dehumanization functions and the usefulness of suppressing empathy when solv
In this study new methods were proposed to elicit and measure the components of a social represen... more In this study new methods were proposed to elicit and measure the components of a social representation. To elicit the representation field - the structure of the beliefs relative to the object - we applied the laddering technique, devised by Bagozzi and Edwards (1998) to measure cognitive schemas. The use of indices, proposed in network literature (see, e.g., Faust &
Across three studies, we examined whether ingroup status may affect intergroup perceptions of hum... more Across three studies, we examined whether ingroup status may affect intergroup perceptions of humanity. In Studies 1 and 2, we considered real groups: Northern versus Southern Italians; in Study 3, we manipulated the socioeconomic status of two minimal groups. In all studies, members of higher status groups perceived the ingroup as more human than the outgroup, while members of lower status groups did not assign a privileged human status to the ingroup. Such findings were obtained using different implicit techniques: the Implicit Association Test (IAT) and the Go/No-go Association Task (GNAT). Further, results suggest that the different perceptions of humanity may depend on the stereotypic traits generally ascribed to higher and lower status groups. The implications of results for infrahumanization research are discussed.
In two studies, we tested the hypothesis that categorization of ambiguous human/ape faces depends... more In two studies, we tested the hypothesis that categorization of ambiguous human/ape faces depends on group membership: people are inclined to protect ingroup humanity, but not that of the outgroup. We used as stimuli: human, ape, ambiguous human/ape faces. Ambiguous human/ape faces were generated using a computerized morphing procedure. Participants categorized stimuli as human or ape. Two conditions were introduced: in the ingroup condition, participants were informed that human exemplars were ingroup members, in the outgroup condition that they were outgroup members. We expected participants, in an effort to protect ingroup humanity, to categorize ambiguous stimuli as ape more often in the ingroup than outgroup condition. Predictions were confirmed. Results are discussed in the context of infrahumanization theory.
Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 2012
ABSTRACT Image theory was used in this study to assess the images that Italian adults with differ... more ABSTRACT Image theory was used in this study to assess the images that Italian adults with different political ideologies have of the United States. In addition to the ally, barbarian, enemy, and imperialist images, a new image, that of the father, was introduced. It was found that right-wing respondents endorsed the father and ally images of Americans, while left-wing respondents perceived Americans as barbarians. The theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.
ABSTRACT In this article, dehumanization of patients was studied as a strategy used by nurses to ... more ABSTRACT In this article, dehumanization of patients was studied as a strategy used by nurses to cope with stress. Affective organizational commitment (AOC) and affective commitment to patients (ACP) were tested as moderators. We also explored how nurses' humanity attributions to their in-group relate to stress symptoms. Participants were nurses working in different wards of an Italian urban hospital. Findings showed that perceiving patients as not fully human was related to lower levels of stress symptoms for nurses with high AOC and ACP, but not for nurses with low AOC and ACP. Moreover, for highly committed nurses, the attribution of uniquely human traits to the in-group was associated with increased stress symptoms. Implications of findings for the relationship between nurses and patients are discussed.
Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 2013
We evaluated the relationship between workaholism and 2 individual difference variables relevant ... more We evaluated the relationship between workaholism and 2 individual difference variables relevant to an organizational context, namely: proactive personality and locomotion orientation. Specifically, we examined working excessively (WE), working compulsively (WC), and perceived self-efficacy, proactivity, and locomotion in a sample of nurses working in an Italian public hospital. Data were analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling. Because WE and WC were not distinct factors, a unitary workaholism factor was used when applying regression analysis. As expected, workaholism was related negatively to proactivity, and positively to locomotion. In contrast, its relationship with self-efficacy was nonsignificant. The practical implications of our findings and future research directions are discussed.
Over the past 15 years, outgroup dehumanization has been a topic of great interest in the field o... more Over the past 15 years, outgroup dehumanization has been a topic of great interest in the field of social psychology. Researchers have in particular investigated the different forms of dehumanization and its detrimental consequences; however, little attention has been paid to the problem of how dehumanizing perceptions can be reduced. In this article, we review the studies that investigate whether intergroup contact may be related to more favorable humanity attributions. Different forms of contact have been considered: direct and imagined contact, cross-group friendships, and extended contact. Evidence regarding direct and imagined contact allows us to conclude that contact attenuates infrahumanization and favors outgroup humanization. For direct and indirect cross-group friendships, in contrast, the association between contact and ameliorated humanity attributions is only supported by correlational evidence. We conclude with a discussion of the practical implications of the studies reviewed, and propose directions for future research.
... Federica Durante University of Milan–Bicocca ... E-mail: [email protected] andgiulio.bocc... more ... Federica Durante University of Milan–Bicocca ... E-mail: [email protected][email protected]. Page 2. ... However, faster latencies in classifying ape rather than human faces, when preceded by outgroup names, would suggest a de-humanization effect. ...
The aim of this experiment is to examine whether communicating the results of social psychologica... more The aim of this experiment is to examine whether communicating the results of social psychological research improves out-group stereotypes and diminishes in-group bias. The experimental material consisted of 2 communications: one described Hamilton and Gifford's (1 976) experiment on illusory correlation (Experiment 1); the other described Sherif's (1 966) studies on summer camps. The results of the present experiment show that knowledge of Sherif's findings had no effect on evaluations, whereas an awareness of the experiment on illusory correlation produced a boomerang effect, accentuating, rather than diminishing, in-group bias. A second experiment revealed that the persuasive power of a scientific message on stereotypes depends on whether in-groups and out-groups are cognitively present in the message acquisition phase.
The aim of the present paper was to test whether cross-group friendships and extended contact (kn... more The aim of the present paper was to test whether cross-group friendships and extended contact (knowing that ingroup members have a friendly relationship with outgroup members) are related to reduced outgroup infrahumanization. The relationship between heterosexuals and homosexuals was considered. Participants were university students; all were heterosexual. A questionnaire was used and structural equation models were evaluated. Findings showed that only extended contact was related to reduced infrahumanization and increased outgroup humanization; the key-mediator in these relationships was the mechanism of including the outgroup in the self. Practical implications of findings are discussed.
ABSTRACT In this article, dehumanization of patients was studied as a strategy used by nurses to ... more ABSTRACT In this article, dehumanization of patients was studied as a strategy used by nurses to cope with stress. Affective organizational commitment (AOC) and affective commitment to patients (ACP) were tested as moderators. We also explored how nurses' humanity attributions to their in-group relate to stress symptoms. Participants were nurses working in different wards of an Italian urban hospital. Findings showed that perceiving patients as not fully human was related to lower levels of stress symptoms for nurses with high AOC and ACP, but not for nurses with low AOC and ACP. Moreover, for highly committed nurses, the attribution of uniquely human traits to the in-group was associated with increased stress symptoms. Implications of findings for the relationship between nurses and patients are discussed.
Past research, based on explicit measures, has shown that Americans are rated as competent but no... more Past research, based on explicit measures, has shown that Americans are rated as competent but not warm. In the present study, we assessed the implicit stereotype of Americans along the two dimensions of competence and warmth. Participants (Italian university students) completed a Go/No-go Association Task, in which Americans and Italians were the target categories and competence and warmth the target attributes. They also completed a questionnaire measuring three individual difference variables, namely Social Dominance Orientation, national identification, and political orientation. We hypothesized that Americans would be more associated with competence than warmth; we also expected Americans to be more associated with competence and less with warmth than Italians. Predictions were supported. The implicit associations were not correlated with the individual difference variables, thus suggesting they are a reflection of a well-learned cultural stereotype of Americans.
Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 2012
ABSTRACT Image theory was used in this study to assess the images that Italian adults with differ... more ABSTRACT Image theory was used in this study to assess the images that Italian adults with different political ideologies have of the United States. In addition to the ally, barbarian, enemy, and imperialist images, a new image, that of the father, was introduced. It was found that right-wing respondents endorsed the father and ally images of Americans, while left-wing respondents perceived Americans as barbarians. The theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.
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