High identifiers are generally more willing to affiliate to their group and, as a result, perceiv... more High identifiers are generally more willing to affiliate to their group and, as a result, perceive themselves and behave as prototypical members of their group. But is this always the case? The present research investigates the when and the why of the positive relationship between ingroup identification and assimilation by focusing on the role of the content of the injunctive ingroup norm (collectivistic vs. individualistic) and the ingroup status. Two experiments showed a positive identification-assimilation relationship in the low-status group when the ingroup norm was collectivistic, but not when the norm was individualistic. Moreover, the relationship was unreliable in the high-status group, regardless of the content of the norm. In a third study, these findings were extended to a more general measure of group affiliation (i.e., the need to belong). This research suggests that the greater tendency of high identifiers to assimilate to their group-and, more generally, to affiliate...
High identifiers are generally more willing to affiliate to their group and, as a result, perce... more High identifiers are generally more willing to affiliate to their group and, as a result, perceive themselves and behave as prototypical members of their group. But is this always the case? The present research investigates the when and the why of the positive relationship between ingroup identification and assimilation by focusing on the role of the content of the injunctive ingroup norm (collectivistic vs. individualistic) and the ingroup status. Two experiments showed a positive identification-assimilation relationship in the low-status group when the ingroup norm was collectivistic, but not when the norm was individualistic. Moreover, the rela- tionship was unreliable in the high-status group, regardless of the content of the norm. In a third study, these findings were extended to a more general measure of group affiliation (i.e., the need to belong). This research suggests that the greater tendency of high identifiers to assimilate to their group–and, more generally, to affiliate to groups–is accounted for by con- formity motivations and strategies aimed at coping with an unfavorable social identity.
Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 2017
This work reconciles previous discrepancies regarding when and how the demographic composition of... more This work reconciles previous discrepancies regarding when and how the demographic composition of supervisor-subordinate dyads relates to perceived supervisor support. We draw from social identity theory to argue that building relationships with higher status group members, while distancing oneself from the lower status group, is a contextually induced way female and racial minority employees may cope with identity threat in the workplace. Our results supported the hypotheses, indicating that this self-distancing effect via reduced perceived supervisor support only emerges in settings where gender or racial identities may be considered threatened (in organizations with climates of higher perceived gender inequity, Study 1; or climates of higher perceived diversity inequity, Study 2). Such results are particularly important and timely given the recent ample attention in popular media and academic outlets regarding the ‘queen bee’ effect, the ‘crabs in the barrel’ mentality, and diversity-valuing behavior of leaders. The current research suggests that such behaviors are not generalizable to all female or minority employees; rather, this effect seems to be context-driven.
Glass-cliff research shows that female leaders are preferentially selected in a crisis to signal ... more Glass-cliff research shows that female leaders are preferentially selected in a crisis to signal change and not for their leadership qualifications. In parallel, the management literature urges for agentic “masculine” leadership to turn around organizations in crisis. We hypothesized that, regardless of their gender, agentic leaders should be preferred to communal leaders if leadership qualifications and actual change potential motivate leader selection. Three experimental studies demonstrated that agentic (vs. communal) candidates were perceived to match poorly-performing (vs. strongly-performing) companies. This effect was accounted for by perceptions of agentic candidates' higher suitability, higher task-orientation (versus person-orientation), and higher change potential. We discuss that women face ambiguity as to why they become leaders in crisis contexts: because they are perceived as signaling change, stereotypically linked to their gender, or for their perceived agentic qualities as leaders. In contrast, men become crisis leaders due to their perceived agentic change potential.
International Journal of Human Resource Management, 2012
Despite burgeoning literature on knowledge transfer, relatively little is known about how strateg... more Despite burgeoning literature on knowledge transfer, relatively little is known about how strategic knowledge is created and exchanged and, specifically, the influence of leadership in stimulating and marshalling successful innovation. We frame this process as a dynamic capability that is primarily inter-organisational; it is also highly complex, hard to grasp and hard to imitate and calls for knowledge leadership, a
Abstract: Women are paid less than men in comparable occupations when human capital factors are c... more Abstract: Women are paid less than men in comparable occupations when human capital factors are controlled for. This gender pay gap is particularly prominent in upper management where on average female leaders are allocated 30 per cent less pay than ...
Previous research shows that gender vanguards (individuals who demonstrate gender-atypical skills... more Previous research shows that gender vanguards (individuals who demonstrate gender-atypical skills and behavior) suffer backlash in the form of social and economic penalties (Rudman & Phelan, 2008). This study examined backlash against female and male job applicants who were either gender-atypical or typical. Professionals (N = 149) evaluated female or male managerial applicants for internal promotion described in their performance review as showing either self-advocacy or advocacy on behalf of their team. Atypical, other-advocating men were judged to be low on agency and competence and penalized with job dismissal. Serial mediation analysis demonstrated that, compared with other-advocating women, other-advocating men were perceived to lack agency, which contributed to a perceived loss of competence that ultimately led to greater penalties. The implications of these findings for contemporary leadership theories and men’s and women’s professional success in the workplace are discussed.
The present research examines individuals’ concern for the ingroup when they move from a socially... more The present research examines individuals’ concern for the ingroup when they move from a socially disadvantaged inherited background (in terms of gender, ethnicity, and nationality) to a higher social standing through individual achievement. Studies 1-2 show that the status inconsistency between the disadvantaged and the achieved groups undermines concern for the disadvantaged ingroup. Studies 3-4 demonstrate that this lower concern for the ingroup is concomitant with maintaining the identification with the low-status ingroup and the increase of the identification with the achieved group. These findings suggest that low concern for the ingroup is not explained by a decrease in identification with the disadvantaged, but rather by an increase in identification with the high-status group.
Who gets the carrot and who gets the stick? Evidence of gender disparities in executive remuneration, Jan 1, 2011
This paper offers a new explanation of the gender pay gap in leadership positions by examining th... more This paper offers a new explanation of the gender pay gap in leadership positions by examining the relationship between managerial bonuses and company performance. Drawing on findings of gender studies, agency theory, and the leadership literature, we argue that the gender pay gap is a context-specific phenomenon which results partly from the fact that company performance has a moderating impact on pay inequalities. Employing a matched sample of 192 female and male executive directors of UK listed firms we corroborate the existence of the gender pay disparities in corporate boardrooms. In line with our theoretical predictions, we find that bonuses awarded to men are not only larger than those allocated to women, but also that managerial compensation of male executive directors is much more performance-sensitive than that of female executives. The contribution of attributional and expectancy-related dynamics to these patterns is highlighted in line with previous work on gender stereotypes and implicit leadership theories such as the romance of leadership. Gender differences in risk-taking and confidence are also considered as potential explanations for the observed pay disparities. The implications of organizations' indifference to women's performance are examined in relation to issues surrounding the recognition and retention of female talent.
This paper extends prior research on the romance of leadership by examining (a) whether the roman... more This paper extends prior research on the romance of leadership by examining (a) whether the romance of leadership holds for women as well as for men, and (b) the impact of the romance of leadership on performance-based pay. An experimental study ( N = 210) suggests that the romance of leadership does exist for both men and women but that the process of pay allocation differs as a function of gender. For a female leader, the allocation of a performancerelated bonus is based on perceptions of her charisma and leadership ability rather than resulting directly from company performance. However, for a male leader bonus allocation reflects the romance of leadership such that improved company performance leads to increased perceived charisma, increased leadership ability, and a larger bonus. Practical implications for the gender pay gap are discussed.
La diferencia de salarios por género entre los altos cargos es muchísimo más amplia que en los ca... more La diferencia de salarios por género entre los altos cargos es muchísimo más amplia que en los cargos más bajos. Una razón posible para esta diferencia puede ser que las mujeres no son administradoras exitosas. En efecto, investigaciones acerca del "romance del liderazgo" sugieren que las habilidades de los administradores se juzgan basadas en el desempeño de sus compañías (Meindl, Ehrlich & Durkerich, 1985). Sin embargo, las investigaciones previas no han controlado el género, así que se sabe poco de las dinámicas relacionadas en el romance del liderazgo para las mujeres.
An archival study of U.K. General Election results from 2001, 2005, and 2010 revealed that Conser... more An archival study of U.K. General Election results from 2001, 2005, and 2010 revealed that Conservative black and minority ethnic (BME) candidates were less successful than their white counterparts. However, mediation analyses demonstrate that this lack of success can be explained by the lower winnability of BME candidates’ seats, such that the opposition candidate held a seat with a significantly larger majority compared with white candidates’ opponents. Results and implications are discussed in the framework of the “glass cliff,” previously demonstrated for women, in the sense that the seats minority groups contested were harder to win compared with majority groups.
Recent archival and experimental research has revealed that women are more likely than men to be ... more Recent archival and experimental research has revealed that women are more likely than men to be appointed to leadership positions when an organization is in crisis. As a result, women often confront a "glass cliff" in which their position as leader is precarious. Our first archival study examined the 2005 UK general election and found that, in the Conservative party, women contested harder to win seats than did men. Our second study experimentally investigated the selection of a candidate by 80 undergraduates in a British political science class to contest a by-election in a seat that was either safe (held by own party with a large margin) or risky (held by an opposition party with a large margin). Results indicated that a male candidate was more likely than a woman to be selected to contest a safe seat, but there was a strong preference for a female rather than a male appointment when the seat was described as hard to win. Implications for women's participation in politics are discussed.
This paper presents a comprehensive archival examination of FTSE 100 companies in the period 2001... more This paper presents a comprehensive archival examination of FTSE 100 companies in the period 2001-2005, focusing on the relationship between the presence of women on company boards and both accountancy-based and stock-based measures of company performance. Consistent with work by Adams, Gupta and Leeth this analysis reveals that there was no relationship between women's presence on boards and 'objective' accountancy-based measures of performance (return on assets, return on equity). However, consistent with 'glass cliff' research there was a negative relationship between women's presence on boards and 'subjective' stock-based measures of performance. Companies with male-only boards enjoyed a valuation premium of 37% relative to firms with a woman on their board. Results support claims that women are found on the boards of companies that are perceived to be performing poorly and that their presence on boards can lead to the devaluation of companies by investors. Yet the findings also indicate that perceptions and investment are not aligned with the underlying realities of company performance.
The glass cliff refers to the phenomenon whereby women are overrepresented in leadership roles as... more The glass cliff refers to the phenomenon whereby women are overrepresented in leadership roles associated with high risk and an increased chance of failure. Research into the glass cliff has focused on documenting the existence of the phenomenon and understanding the psychological processes that contribute to the appointment of women to precarious positions. This paper summarises this research and extends it by examining the implications that glass cliff positions have, both for the women who occupy them and for the organisations in which they exist. The gender-stress-disidentification model suggests that glass cliff positions are inherently stressful, and lead women to experience a reduced sense of organisational identification. This, in turn, has important implications for organisations in terms of reduced commitment and increased turnover. Taken together, the research presented here offers an alternative analysis of women's increasing disaffection with the workplace, which takes into account gender differences in workplace experience.
Despite burgeoning literature on knowledge transfer, relatively little is known about how strateg... more Despite burgeoning literature on knowledge transfer, relatively little is known about how strategic knowledge is created and exchanged and, specifically, the influence of leadership in stimulating and marshalling successful innovation. We frame this process as a dynamic capability that is primarily inter-organisational; it is also highly complex, hard to grasp and hard to imitate and calls for knowledge leadership, a qualitatively different kind of leadership from that which characterises more traditional industrial economies. This poses particular challenges for human resource (HR) specialists seeking to promote knowledge leadership across institutional and cultural boundaries. We report on preliminary findings from interviews with scientists working in a global particle physics experiment being conducted in the Large Hadron Collider at CERN (an abbreviation of the French version of European Organisation for Nuclear Research), Switzerland. Given that this collaboration (a global set of loosely coupled, non-hierarchical networks) is prototypical of many international knowledge-based enterprises, the findings will help to inform the HR requirements for successful knowledge leadership.
High identifiers are generally more willing to affiliate to their group and, as a result, perceiv... more High identifiers are generally more willing to affiliate to their group and, as a result, perceive themselves and behave as prototypical members of their group. But is this always the case? The present research investigates the when and the why of the positive relationship between ingroup identification and assimilation by focusing on the role of the content of the injunctive ingroup norm (collectivistic vs. individualistic) and the ingroup status. Two experiments showed a positive identification-assimilation relationship in the low-status group when the ingroup norm was collectivistic, but not when the norm was individualistic. Moreover, the relationship was unreliable in the high-status group, regardless of the content of the norm. In a third study, these findings were extended to a more general measure of group affiliation (i.e., the need to belong). This research suggests that the greater tendency of high identifiers to assimilate to their group-and, more generally, to affiliate...
High identifiers are generally more willing to affiliate to their group and, as a result, perce... more High identifiers are generally more willing to affiliate to their group and, as a result, perceive themselves and behave as prototypical members of their group. But is this always the case? The present research investigates the when and the why of the positive relationship between ingroup identification and assimilation by focusing on the role of the content of the injunctive ingroup norm (collectivistic vs. individualistic) and the ingroup status. Two experiments showed a positive identification-assimilation relationship in the low-status group when the ingroup norm was collectivistic, but not when the norm was individualistic. Moreover, the rela- tionship was unreliable in the high-status group, regardless of the content of the norm. In a third study, these findings were extended to a more general measure of group affiliation (i.e., the need to belong). This research suggests that the greater tendency of high identifiers to assimilate to their group–and, more generally, to affiliate to groups–is accounted for by con- formity motivations and strategies aimed at coping with an unfavorable social identity.
Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 2017
This work reconciles previous discrepancies regarding when and how the demographic composition of... more This work reconciles previous discrepancies regarding when and how the demographic composition of supervisor-subordinate dyads relates to perceived supervisor support. We draw from social identity theory to argue that building relationships with higher status group members, while distancing oneself from the lower status group, is a contextually induced way female and racial minority employees may cope with identity threat in the workplace. Our results supported the hypotheses, indicating that this self-distancing effect via reduced perceived supervisor support only emerges in settings where gender or racial identities may be considered threatened (in organizations with climates of higher perceived gender inequity, Study 1; or climates of higher perceived diversity inequity, Study 2). Such results are particularly important and timely given the recent ample attention in popular media and academic outlets regarding the ‘queen bee’ effect, the ‘crabs in the barrel’ mentality, and diversity-valuing behavior of leaders. The current research suggests that such behaviors are not generalizable to all female or minority employees; rather, this effect seems to be context-driven.
Glass-cliff research shows that female leaders are preferentially selected in a crisis to signal ... more Glass-cliff research shows that female leaders are preferentially selected in a crisis to signal change and not for their leadership qualifications. In parallel, the management literature urges for agentic “masculine” leadership to turn around organizations in crisis. We hypothesized that, regardless of their gender, agentic leaders should be preferred to communal leaders if leadership qualifications and actual change potential motivate leader selection. Three experimental studies demonstrated that agentic (vs. communal) candidates were perceived to match poorly-performing (vs. strongly-performing) companies. This effect was accounted for by perceptions of agentic candidates' higher suitability, higher task-orientation (versus person-orientation), and higher change potential. We discuss that women face ambiguity as to why they become leaders in crisis contexts: because they are perceived as signaling change, stereotypically linked to their gender, or for their perceived agentic qualities as leaders. In contrast, men become crisis leaders due to their perceived agentic change potential.
International Journal of Human Resource Management, 2012
Despite burgeoning literature on knowledge transfer, relatively little is known about how strateg... more Despite burgeoning literature on knowledge transfer, relatively little is known about how strategic knowledge is created and exchanged and, specifically, the influence of leadership in stimulating and marshalling successful innovation. We frame this process as a dynamic capability that is primarily inter-organisational; it is also highly complex, hard to grasp and hard to imitate and calls for knowledge leadership, a
Abstract: Women are paid less than men in comparable occupations when human capital factors are c... more Abstract: Women are paid less than men in comparable occupations when human capital factors are controlled for. This gender pay gap is particularly prominent in upper management where on average female leaders are allocated 30 per cent less pay than ...
Previous research shows that gender vanguards (individuals who demonstrate gender-atypical skills... more Previous research shows that gender vanguards (individuals who demonstrate gender-atypical skills and behavior) suffer backlash in the form of social and economic penalties (Rudman & Phelan, 2008). This study examined backlash against female and male job applicants who were either gender-atypical or typical. Professionals (N = 149) evaluated female or male managerial applicants for internal promotion described in their performance review as showing either self-advocacy or advocacy on behalf of their team. Atypical, other-advocating men were judged to be low on agency and competence and penalized with job dismissal. Serial mediation analysis demonstrated that, compared with other-advocating women, other-advocating men were perceived to lack agency, which contributed to a perceived loss of competence that ultimately led to greater penalties. The implications of these findings for contemporary leadership theories and men’s and women’s professional success in the workplace are discussed.
The present research examines individuals’ concern for the ingroup when they move from a socially... more The present research examines individuals’ concern for the ingroup when they move from a socially disadvantaged inherited background (in terms of gender, ethnicity, and nationality) to a higher social standing through individual achievement. Studies 1-2 show that the status inconsistency between the disadvantaged and the achieved groups undermines concern for the disadvantaged ingroup. Studies 3-4 demonstrate that this lower concern for the ingroup is concomitant with maintaining the identification with the low-status ingroup and the increase of the identification with the achieved group. These findings suggest that low concern for the ingroup is not explained by a decrease in identification with the disadvantaged, but rather by an increase in identification with the high-status group.
Who gets the carrot and who gets the stick? Evidence of gender disparities in executive remuneration, Jan 1, 2011
This paper offers a new explanation of the gender pay gap in leadership positions by examining th... more This paper offers a new explanation of the gender pay gap in leadership positions by examining the relationship between managerial bonuses and company performance. Drawing on findings of gender studies, agency theory, and the leadership literature, we argue that the gender pay gap is a context-specific phenomenon which results partly from the fact that company performance has a moderating impact on pay inequalities. Employing a matched sample of 192 female and male executive directors of UK listed firms we corroborate the existence of the gender pay disparities in corporate boardrooms. In line with our theoretical predictions, we find that bonuses awarded to men are not only larger than those allocated to women, but also that managerial compensation of male executive directors is much more performance-sensitive than that of female executives. The contribution of attributional and expectancy-related dynamics to these patterns is highlighted in line with previous work on gender stereotypes and implicit leadership theories such as the romance of leadership. Gender differences in risk-taking and confidence are also considered as potential explanations for the observed pay disparities. The implications of organizations' indifference to women's performance are examined in relation to issues surrounding the recognition and retention of female talent.
This paper extends prior research on the romance of leadership by examining (a) whether the roman... more This paper extends prior research on the romance of leadership by examining (a) whether the romance of leadership holds for women as well as for men, and (b) the impact of the romance of leadership on performance-based pay. An experimental study ( N = 210) suggests that the romance of leadership does exist for both men and women but that the process of pay allocation differs as a function of gender. For a female leader, the allocation of a performancerelated bonus is based on perceptions of her charisma and leadership ability rather than resulting directly from company performance. However, for a male leader bonus allocation reflects the romance of leadership such that improved company performance leads to increased perceived charisma, increased leadership ability, and a larger bonus. Practical implications for the gender pay gap are discussed.
La diferencia de salarios por género entre los altos cargos es muchísimo más amplia que en los ca... more La diferencia de salarios por género entre los altos cargos es muchísimo más amplia que en los cargos más bajos. Una razón posible para esta diferencia puede ser que las mujeres no son administradoras exitosas. En efecto, investigaciones acerca del "romance del liderazgo" sugieren que las habilidades de los administradores se juzgan basadas en el desempeño de sus compañías (Meindl, Ehrlich & Durkerich, 1985). Sin embargo, las investigaciones previas no han controlado el género, así que se sabe poco de las dinámicas relacionadas en el romance del liderazgo para las mujeres.
An archival study of U.K. General Election results from 2001, 2005, and 2010 revealed that Conser... more An archival study of U.K. General Election results from 2001, 2005, and 2010 revealed that Conservative black and minority ethnic (BME) candidates were less successful than their white counterparts. However, mediation analyses demonstrate that this lack of success can be explained by the lower winnability of BME candidates’ seats, such that the opposition candidate held a seat with a significantly larger majority compared with white candidates’ opponents. Results and implications are discussed in the framework of the “glass cliff,” previously demonstrated for women, in the sense that the seats minority groups contested were harder to win compared with majority groups.
Recent archival and experimental research has revealed that women are more likely than men to be ... more Recent archival and experimental research has revealed that women are more likely than men to be appointed to leadership positions when an organization is in crisis. As a result, women often confront a "glass cliff" in which their position as leader is precarious. Our first archival study examined the 2005 UK general election and found that, in the Conservative party, women contested harder to win seats than did men. Our second study experimentally investigated the selection of a candidate by 80 undergraduates in a British political science class to contest a by-election in a seat that was either safe (held by own party with a large margin) or risky (held by an opposition party with a large margin). Results indicated that a male candidate was more likely than a woman to be selected to contest a safe seat, but there was a strong preference for a female rather than a male appointment when the seat was described as hard to win. Implications for women's participation in politics are discussed.
This paper presents a comprehensive archival examination of FTSE 100 companies in the period 2001... more This paper presents a comprehensive archival examination of FTSE 100 companies in the period 2001-2005, focusing on the relationship between the presence of women on company boards and both accountancy-based and stock-based measures of company performance. Consistent with work by Adams, Gupta and Leeth this analysis reveals that there was no relationship between women's presence on boards and 'objective' accountancy-based measures of performance (return on assets, return on equity). However, consistent with 'glass cliff' research there was a negative relationship between women's presence on boards and 'subjective' stock-based measures of performance. Companies with male-only boards enjoyed a valuation premium of 37% relative to firms with a woman on their board. Results support claims that women are found on the boards of companies that are perceived to be performing poorly and that their presence on boards can lead to the devaluation of companies by investors. Yet the findings also indicate that perceptions and investment are not aligned with the underlying realities of company performance.
The glass cliff refers to the phenomenon whereby women are overrepresented in leadership roles as... more The glass cliff refers to the phenomenon whereby women are overrepresented in leadership roles associated with high risk and an increased chance of failure. Research into the glass cliff has focused on documenting the existence of the phenomenon and understanding the psychological processes that contribute to the appointment of women to precarious positions. This paper summarises this research and extends it by examining the implications that glass cliff positions have, both for the women who occupy them and for the organisations in which they exist. The gender-stress-disidentification model suggests that glass cliff positions are inherently stressful, and lead women to experience a reduced sense of organisational identification. This, in turn, has important implications for organisations in terms of reduced commitment and increased turnover. Taken together, the research presented here offers an alternative analysis of women's increasing disaffection with the workplace, which takes into account gender differences in workplace experience.
Despite burgeoning literature on knowledge transfer, relatively little is known about how strateg... more Despite burgeoning literature on knowledge transfer, relatively little is known about how strategic knowledge is created and exchanged and, specifically, the influence of leadership in stimulating and marshalling successful innovation. We frame this process as a dynamic capability that is primarily inter-organisational; it is also highly complex, hard to grasp and hard to imitate and calls for knowledge leadership, a qualitatively different kind of leadership from that which characterises more traditional industrial economies. This poses particular challenges for human resource (HR) specialists seeking to promote knowledge leadership across institutional and cultural boundaries. We report on preliminary findings from interviews with scientists working in a global particle physics experiment being conducted in the Large Hadron Collider at CERN (an abbreviation of the French version of European Organisation for Nuclear Research), Switzerland. Given that this collaboration (a global set of loosely coupled, non-hierarchical networks) is prototypical of many international knowledge-based enterprises, the findings will help to inform the HR requirements for successful knowledge leadership.
The lexicographic analysis is a descriptive method to visualize free association data. Using a tw... more The lexicographic analysis is a descriptive method to visualize free association data. Using a two-dimensional coordinate-system (a) the frequencies of identical associations and (b) the rank of production of associations is taken into account. The analysis provides insight into the organisational properties of social representations. Clear cut-criteria and comparability of data from different samples are achieved by applying the lexicographical analysis. The method is presented by the example of free association data to the stimulus "Euro" and the Austrian "Schilling", 2001 and 2002.
Research into the glass cliff indicates that adverse company circumstances, compared to favorable... more Research into the glass cliff indicates that adverse company circumstances, compared to favorable ones, increase the likelihood of women to be appointed in leadership positions. Study 1 refined the conditions under which a glass cliff occurs by demonstrating a preference for a female leader when a company’s performance was attributed to past leadership (an internal, controllable cause) but not when it was attributed to global economic circumstances (an external, uncontrollable cause). Study 2 replicated the glass cliff for a controllable context and revealed that the female candidate’s potential to signal change, rather than her quality and suitability as a leader, accounted for the preference of the female candidate. We conclude that women, as non-traditional leaders, are strategic choices of companies with the aim to signal change to the outside world (e.g., investors) when past leadership is held responsible for a crisis. However, they are not expected to actually impact on the company’s performance through their leadership quality.
This article first reviews the historical rise and the developments of psychological research on ... more This article first reviews the historical rise and the developments of psychological research on sexism which led to the differentiation between biological sex and cultural gender, and highlights commonalities between gender relations and other status-based intergroup relations. Old-fashioned, overt and explicit forms of sexism are then distinguished from contemporary, more subtle, and implicit forms. The latter are characterized by ambivalence of hostility and benevolence towards women. The final section discusses major behavioral consequences of the different forms of sexism, emphasizing the harmful impact of benevolence on women's feelings of self-worth and competence, and actual performances.
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