Standard definitions of procrastination underscore the irrational nature of this habit, a critica... more Standard definitions of procrastination underscore the irrational nature of this habit, a critical criterion being that the procrastinating individual delays despite expecting to be worse off for the delay. However, an examination of more than 175 items in 18 procrastination scales reveals that they do not address such a forward-looking criterion. Consequently, scales run the risk of not separating maladaptive and irrational delays from other forms of delay. We propose that forward-looking considerations may not be the best way of operationalizing the irrationality involved in procrastination and argue that scales should instead focus on past negative consequences of unnecessary delay. We suggest a new scale to measure such procrastination-related negative consequences and demonstrate that this scale, used separately or combined with established procrastination scales, performs better in predicting negative states and correlates to procrastination than established scales. The new sc...
More than 30 years have passed since the publication of this paper. Since then, Killeen, Shull an... more More than 30 years have passed since the publication of this paper. Since then, Killeen, Shull and many others have provided ample evidence to contradict Catania’s worries that mathematical treatments in many cases “...seem not to have supplemented an experimental analysis but rather to have supplanted one” (Catania, 1981, p. 49). My comments here will mainly focus on Catania’s first example, i.e., on the problem of absolute vs. relative measures of behavior. This issue is of particular interest in analyses of the effect of continuous vs. intermittent reinforcement on extinction performance. Most researchers seem to agree with Skinner’s and Humphreys’ initial observations that intermittent reinforcement causes subsequent extinction responding to become more persistent compared to extinction performance following continuous reinforcement (often named the partial reinforcement extinction effect, PREE). However, although this effect may be obvious when extinction performance is observed isolated from acquisition performance, it is less obvious when observed in context. Sometimes, acquisition response levels are quite different between intermittent (PRF) and continuous reinforcement (CRF) conditions, significantly affecting subsequent extinction performance. Inferences about extinction performance may then be a matter of choice. For example, in animal research, operant responding rate under a PRF schedule is typically higher compared to responding under the CRF schedule. In subsequent extinction, response rate is also higher following PRF vs. CRF. If the absolute number of responses is used as an index of extinction persistence, a PREE is observed; however, if a relative measure (i.e., extinction responses relative to final acquisition rate) is used, no difference, or even a reversed PREE, may be observed (e.g., Nevin, 1988). A relative measure may be justified because it takes into account differences in the initial response level, but an absolute measure may be valid because it demonstrates the obvious fact that more responses are emitted under extinction. Which is the more correct measure? Catania’s advice to rely on experimental analysis focusing on response rate seems not to provide a convincing answer. Because extinction response rate is affected by response level at final acquisition level, it should not be analyzed isolated from that fact. A proper understanding of extinction performance should also include an analysis of other potential confounding variables, e.g., differences in discriminability between the CRF and EXT vs. PRF and EXT schedules, response unit considerations, and schedule implementations in terms of reinforcer density The Analysis of Extinction Persistence,
Procrastination is a common problem, but defining and measuring it has been subject to some debat... more Procrastination is a common problem, but defining and measuring it has been subject to some debate. This paper summarizes results from students and employees (N = 2893) in Finland, Germany, Italy, Norway, Poland, and Sweden using the Pure Procrastination Scale (PPS) and the Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS; Steel, 2010), both assumed to measure unidimensional and closely related constructs. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated inadequate configural fit for the suggested one-factor model for PPS; however, acceptable fit was observed for a three-factor model corresponding to the three different scales the PPS is based on. Testing measurement invariance over countries and students-employees revealed configural but not strong or strict invariance, indicating that both instruments are somewhat sensitive to cultural differences. We conclude that the PPS and IPS are valid measures of procrastination, and that the PPS may be particularly useful in assessing cultural differences in unnecessary delay.
BACKGROUND Consumer-based activity trackers are increasingly used in research as they have potent... more BACKGROUND Consumer-based activity trackers are increasingly used in research as they have potential to motivate increased physical activity and can be used for estimating physical activity among participants. However, the accuracy of newer consumer-based devices is mostly unknown, and validation studies are needed. OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to compare the Polar Vantage watch and Oura ring activity trackers with research-based instruments, for measuring physical activity, total energy expenditure, resting heart rate, and sleep duration, in free-living adults. METHODS Twenty-one participants wore two consumer-based activity trackers (Polar, Oura), an ActiGraph accelerometer, an Actiheart accelerometer and heart rate monitor, and completed a sleep diary for up to seven days. We assessed Polar and Oura validity and comparability for physical activity, total energy expenditure, resting heart rate (Oura), and sleep duration. We analysed repeated measures correlation, Blan...
Procrastination is a common problem, but defining and measuring it has been subject to some debat... more Procrastination is a common problem, but defining and measuring it has been subject to some debate. This paper summarizes results from students and employees (N = 2893) in Finland, Germany, Italy, Norway, Poland, and Sweden using the Pure Procrastination Scale (PPS) and the Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS; Steel, 2010), both assumed to measure unidimensional and closely related constructs. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated inadequate configural fit for the suggested one-factor model for PPS; however, acceptable fit was observed for a three-factor model corresponding to the three different scales the PPS is based on. Testing measurement invariance over countries and students-employees revealed configural but not strong or strict invariance, indicating that both instruments are somewhat sensitive to cultural differences. We conclude that the PPS and IPS are valid measures of procrastination, and that the PPS may be particularly useful in assessing cultural differences in unnecessary delay.
Academic procrastination – habitually delaying work with academic tasks to the extent that the de... more Academic procrastination – habitually delaying work with academic tasks to the extent that the delays become detrimental to performance, wellbeing, and health – represents a substantial personal, systemic, and societal problem. Still, efforts to prevent and reduce it are surprisingly scarce and often offered as treatment regimens rather than preventive efforts. Based on the principles of functional analysis and a broad examination of factors that are important for academic procrastinatory behaviors, this paper aims to describe a strategy for analyzing individual controlling conditions for procrastination and give parallel advice on how to change those controlling conditions. Both are ideographic, allowing for individual and dynamic analyses of factors responsible for instigating and maintaining procrastination, as well as tailor-made remedies that address controlling conditions in preventive and curative efforts to reduce procrastination. Although functional analysis integrates well...
Research on procrastination emphasizes trait explanations for unwanted delay, yet environmental f... more Research on procrastination emphasizes trait explanations for unwanted delay, yet environmental factors are most probably significant contributors to the problem. In this paper, we review literature related to the influence of environmental factors on academic procrastination and investigate how such factors may be assessed in facilitating academic procrastination in students. Study 1 asked students to evaluate three different fields of study-natural sciences, medicine, and humanities-on environmental variables assumed to be relevant for academic procrastination (e.g., structured course progression, freedom in the study situation). Distinct differences between the academic fields were observed. In Study 2, participants from these three fields of study rated their own academic procrastination as well as peer procrastination and peer influence. Dispositional (trait) procrastination was also measured. The results demonstrated that environmental factors have a negligible impact on low-procrastinating students, whereas procrastination-friendly environments seem to facilitate and augment academic procrastination in students at medium-level dispositional procrastination, i.e., the majority of students. We conclude that social and environmental factors should receive increased attention in measures taken to reduce and prevent academic procrastination.
Academic attrition is a worldwide problem representing a significant economic loss and a disadvan... more Academic attrition is a worldwide problem representing a significant economic loss and a disadvantage for students in terms of health and career prospects. We focus on the roles of academic skills, academic self-efficacy, and students' integration in exploring their relation to attrition intentions. Based on existing research, we expected a negative relation between academic skills and attrition intentions, with academic self-efficacy and students' integration as possible mediators. Furthermore, it was expected that this relationship would be dependent on the outcome variable being measured (i.e., drop-out, transfer university, and transfer study field intentions). These hypotheses were investigated among Norwegian university students in a questionnaire study (total N = 756). Results supported, as predicted, the mediatory roles of academic self-efficacy and students' integration. Importantly, significant variability was indicated in comparison of the different outcome me...
Inefficient study skills increase the probability that study work is perceived as difficult and a... more Inefficient study skills increase the probability that study work is perceived as difficult and aversive, with procrastination as a likely result. As a remedy, more effective study skills and habits may be encouraged. However, research indicates that good study skills and habits may not by themselves be sufficient to remedy problems, as this relationship may be mediated by efficacy beliefs related to academic functioning. We investigated this hypothesis across three student samples (total N = 752). As predicted, structural equation modeling (SEM) indicated that study self-efficacy mediated the study habits-procrastination relation. The mediation effects were medium to large. We conclude that training of, and advice on, study skills and habits should be accompanied by measures that build study self-efficacy.
Procrastination is related to unhealthy personal financial behaviors, such as postponing retireme... more Procrastination is related to unhealthy personal financial behaviors, such as postponing retirement savings, last minute shopping, and not paying bills on time. The present paper explores factors that could explain why procrastinators demonstrate more financial problems compared to non-procrastinators. Study 1 (N = 675) focused on planning, as both procrastination and poor financial habits are negatively related to planning. Results confirmed that procrastination was a significant predictor of personal finances, but the propensity to plan was not. Study 2 (N = 500) explored the roles of procrastination and financial self-efficacy in two facets of financial behavior, financial impulsivity and financial planning. Results indicated that the effect of procrastination on financial behavior was fully mediated by financial self-efficacy. Hence, these results suggest that procrastination operates primarily through its self-efficacy component to impact financial behavior negatively.
Scales measuring procrastination focus on different aspects of unnecessary and unwanted delay, de... more Scales measuring procrastination focus on different aspects of unnecessary and unwanted delay, delay in task implementation-an increased gap between intention and action-being a core characteristic. However, an inspection of existing procrastination scales reveals that the scales do not distinguish between two facets of implemental delay, onset delay, and delay related to sustained goal striving. We trace this failure to an imprecise understanding of "delay," another core concept in procrastination. This paper discusses the relationship between onset and sustained delay in procrastination, and then describes a new scale attempting to measure these two facets of task implementation. In two studies (aggregated N = 465) we demonstrate, using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, that although onset and sustained action procrastination measures correlate, they are still separate facets of implemental procrastination. Problems with onset delay seem to be particularly important, increasingly so in high procrastinators. Implications, as well as suggestions for further research, are discussed.
This paper examines how procrastinators behave differently from non-procrastinators in implementi... more This paper examines how procrastinators behave differently from non-procrastinators in implementing intended behavior. By focusing on time-related attributes of behavior, we demonstrate in five studies (aggregated N = 965) that onset delay seems to be a preferred option for procrastinators in common daily situations. Thus, when an action possibility is available for intended behavior, procrastinators tend to delay behavior onset, both in actual behavior and in onset preferences, often instigating chains of events with negative consequences. We discuss possible mechanisms responsible for such delays and explore how such mechanisms generate and sustain dilatory behavior. We conclude that a better understanding of why behavioral delays occur in early phases of action implementation is of importance in understanding and preventing procrastination.
How has the concept of metacognition been used within basic and applied psychological research? W... more How has the concept of metacognition been used within basic and applied psychological research? We begin our answer by presenting a broad definition of metacognition, a historical overview of its development and its presence in research databases. To assess which function and facets are most frequently addressed within each of the sub-disciplines, we present results from separate literature searches. We then review how metacognition has been defined and empirically explored within selected sub-disciplines in terms of typical research questions, conceptual definitions, how the concept has been measured, and examples of interesting findings and implications. We identify similarities, inconsistencies, and disagreements across fields and point out areas for future research. Our overall conclusion is that it is useful to consider metacognition as a broad umbrella concept across different domains and across basic and applied research. Nonetheless, we recommend that researchers be more spe...
Scales attempting to measure procrastination focus on different facets of the phenomenon, yet the... more Scales attempting to measure procrastination focus on different facets of the phenomenon, yet they share a common understanding of procrastination as an unnecessary, unwanted, and disadvantageous delay. The present paper examines in a global sample ( = 4,169) five different procrastination scales - Decisional Procrastination Scale (DPS), Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS), Pure Procrastination Scale (PPS), Adult Inventory of Procrastination Scale (AIP), and General Procrastination Scale (GPS), focusing on factor structures and item functioning using Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Item Response Theory. The results indicated that The PPS (12 items selected from DPS, AIP, and GPS) measures different facets of procrastination even better than the three scales it is based on. An even shorter version of the PPS (5 items focusing on irrational delay), corresponds well to the nine-item IPS. Both scales demonstrate good psychometric properties and appear to be superior measures of core...
Standard definitions of procrastination underscore the irrational nature of this habit, a critica... more Standard definitions of procrastination underscore the irrational nature of this habit, a critical criterion being that the procrastinating individual delays despite expecting to be worse off for the delay. However, an examination of more than 175 items in 18 procrastination scales reveals that they do not address such a forward-looking criterion. Consequently, scales run the risk of not separating maladaptive and irrational delays from other forms of delay. We propose that forward-looking considerations may not be the best way of operationalizing the irrationality involved in procrastination and argue that scales should instead focus on past negative consequences of unnecessary delay. We suggest a new scale to measure such procrastination-related negative consequences and demonstrate that this scale, used separately or combined with established procrastination scales, performs better in predicting negative states and correlates to procrastination than established scales. The new sc...
More than 30 years have passed since the publication of this paper. Since then, Killeen, Shull an... more More than 30 years have passed since the publication of this paper. Since then, Killeen, Shull and many others have provided ample evidence to contradict Catania’s worries that mathematical treatments in many cases “...seem not to have supplemented an experimental analysis but rather to have supplanted one” (Catania, 1981, p. 49). My comments here will mainly focus on Catania’s first example, i.e., on the problem of absolute vs. relative measures of behavior. This issue is of particular interest in analyses of the effect of continuous vs. intermittent reinforcement on extinction performance. Most researchers seem to agree with Skinner’s and Humphreys’ initial observations that intermittent reinforcement causes subsequent extinction responding to become more persistent compared to extinction performance following continuous reinforcement (often named the partial reinforcement extinction effect, PREE). However, although this effect may be obvious when extinction performance is observed isolated from acquisition performance, it is less obvious when observed in context. Sometimes, acquisition response levels are quite different between intermittent (PRF) and continuous reinforcement (CRF) conditions, significantly affecting subsequent extinction performance. Inferences about extinction performance may then be a matter of choice. For example, in animal research, operant responding rate under a PRF schedule is typically higher compared to responding under the CRF schedule. In subsequent extinction, response rate is also higher following PRF vs. CRF. If the absolute number of responses is used as an index of extinction persistence, a PREE is observed; however, if a relative measure (i.e., extinction responses relative to final acquisition rate) is used, no difference, or even a reversed PREE, may be observed (e.g., Nevin, 1988). A relative measure may be justified because it takes into account differences in the initial response level, but an absolute measure may be valid because it demonstrates the obvious fact that more responses are emitted under extinction. Which is the more correct measure? Catania’s advice to rely on experimental analysis focusing on response rate seems not to provide a convincing answer. Because extinction response rate is affected by response level at final acquisition level, it should not be analyzed isolated from that fact. A proper understanding of extinction performance should also include an analysis of other potential confounding variables, e.g., differences in discriminability between the CRF and EXT vs. PRF and EXT schedules, response unit considerations, and schedule implementations in terms of reinforcer density The Analysis of Extinction Persistence,
Procrastination is a common problem, but defining and measuring it has been subject to some debat... more Procrastination is a common problem, but defining and measuring it has been subject to some debate. This paper summarizes results from students and employees (N = 2893) in Finland, Germany, Italy, Norway, Poland, and Sweden using the Pure Procrastination Scale (PPS) and the Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS; Steel, 2010), both assumed to measure unidimensional and closely related constructs. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated inadequate configural fit for the suggested one-factor model for PPS; however, acceptable fit was observed for a three-factor model corresponding to the three different scales the PPS is based on. Testing measurement invariance over countries and students-employees revealed configural but not strong or strict invariance, indicating that both instruments are somewhat sensitive to cultural differences. We conclude that the PPS and IPS are valid measures of procrastination, and that the PPS may be particularly useful in assessing cultural differences in unnecessary delay.
BACKGROUND Consumer-based activity trackers are increasingly used in research as they have potent... more BACKGROUND Consumer-based activity trackers are increasingly used in research as they have potential to motivate increased physical activity and can be used for estimating physical activity among participants. However, the accuracy of newer consumer-based devices is mostly unknown, and validation studies are needed. OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to compare the Polar Vantage watch and Oura ring activity trackers with research-based instruments, for measuring physical activity, total energy expenditure, resting heart rate, and sleep duration, in free-living adults. METHODS Twenty-one participants wore two consumer-based activity trackers (Polar, Oura), an ActiGraph accelerometer, an Actiheart accelerometer and heart rate monitor, and completed a sleep diary for up to seven days. We assessed Polar and Oura validity and comparability for physical activity, total energy expenditure, resting heart rate (Oura), and sleep duration. We analysed repeated measures correlation, Blan...
Procrastination is a common problem, but defining and measuring it has been subject to some debat... more Procrastination is a common problem, but defining and measuring it has been subject to some debate. This paper summarizes results from students and employees (N = 2893) in Finland, Germany, Italy, Norway, Poland, and Sweden using the Pure Procrastination Scale (PPS) and the Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS; Steel, 2010), both assumed to measure unidimensional and closely related constructs. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated inadequate configural fit for the suggested one-factor model for PPS; however, acceptable fit was observed for a three-factor model corresponding to the three different scales the PPS is based on. Testing measurement invariance over countries and students-employees revealed configural but not strong or strict invariance, indicating that both instruments are somewhat sensitive to cultural differences. We conclude that the PPS and IPS are valid measures of procrastination, and that the PPS may be particularly useful in assessing cultural differences in unnecessary delay.
Academic procrastination – habitually delaying work with academic tasks to the extent that the de... more Academic procrastination – habitually delaying work with academic tasks to the extent that the delays become detrimental to performance, wellbeing, and health – represents a substantial personal, systemic, and societal problem. Still, efforts to prevent and reduce it are surprisingly scarce and often offered as treatment regimens rather than preventive efforts. Based on the principles of functional analysis and a broad examination of factors that are important for academic procrastinatory behaviors, this paper aims to describe a strategy for analyzing individual controlling conditions for procrastination and give parallel advice on how to change those controlling conditions. Both are ideographic, allowing for individual and dynamic analyses of factors responsible for instigating and maintaining procrastination, as well as tailor-made remedies that address controlling conditions in preventive and curative efforts to reduce procrastination. Although functional analysis integrates well...
Research on procrastination emphasizes trait explanations for unwanted delay, yet environmental f... more Research on procrastination emphasizes trait explanations for unwanted delay, yet environmental factors are most probably significant contributors to the problem. In this paper, we review literature related to the influence of environmental factors on academic procrastination and investigate how such factors may be assessed in facilitating academic procrastination in students. Study 1 asked students to evaluate three different fields of study-natural sciences, medicine, and humanities-on environmental variables assumed to be relevant for academic procrastination (e.g., structured course progression, freedom in the study situation). Distinct differences between the academic fields were observed. In Study 2, participants from these three fields of study rated their own academic procrastination as well as peer procrastination and peer influence. Dispositional (trait) procrastination was also measured. The results demonstrated that environmental factors have a negligible impact on low-procrastinating students, whereas procrastination-friendly environments seem to facilitate and augment academic procrastination in students at medium-level dispositional procrastination, i.e., the majority of students. We conclude that social and environmental factors should receive increased attention in measures taken to reduce and prevent academic procrastination.
Academic attrition is a worldwide problem representing a significant economic loss and a disadvan... more Academic attrition is a worldwide problem representing a significant economic loss and a disadvantage for students in terms of health and career prospects. We focus on the roles of academic skills, academic self-efficacy, and students' integration in exploring their relation to attrition intentions. Based on existing research, we expected a negative relation between academic skills and attrition intentions, with academic self-efficacy and students' integration as possible mediators. Furthermore, it was expected that this relationship would be dependent on the outcome variable being measured (i.e., drop-out, transfer university, and transfer study field intentions). These hypotheses were investigated among Norwegian university students in a questionnaire study (total N = 756). Results supported, as predicted, the mediatory roles of academic self-efficacy and students' integration. Importantly, significant variability was indicated in comparison of the different outcome me...
Inefficient study skills increase the probability that study work is perceived as difficult and a... more Inefficient study skills increase the probability that study work is perceived as difficult and aversive, with procrastination as a likely result. As a remedy, more effective study skills and habits may be encouraged. However, research indicates that good study skills and habits may not by themselves be sufficient to remedy problems, as this relationship may be mediated by efficacy beliefs related to academic functioning. We investigated this hypothesis across three student samples (total N = 752). As predicted, structural equation modeling (SEM) indicated that study self-efficacy mediated the study habits-procrastination relation. The mediation effects were medium to large. We conclude that training of, and advice on, study skills and habits should be accompanied by measures that build study self-efficacy.
Procrastination is related to unhealthy personal financial behaviors, such as postponing retireme... more Procrastination is related to unhealthy personal financial behaviors, such as postponing retirement savings, last minute shopping, and not paying bills on time. The present paper explores factors that could explain why procrastinators demonstrate more financial problems compared to non-procrastinators. Study 1 (N = 675) focused on planning, as both procrastination and poor financial habits are negatively related to planning. Results confirmed that procrastination was a significant predictor of personal finances, but the propensity to plan was not. Study 2 (N = 500) explored the roles of procrastination and financial self-efficacy in two facets of financial behavior, financial impulsivity and financial planning. Results indicated that the effect of procrastination on financial behavior was fully mediated by financial self-efficacy. Hence, these results suggest that procrastination operates primarily through its self-efficacy component to impact financial behavior negatively.
Scales measuring procrastination focus on different aspects of unnecessary and unwanted delay, de... more Scales measuring procrastination focus on different aspects of unnecessary and unwanted delay, delay in task implementation-an increased gap between intention and action-being a core characteristic. However, an inspection of existing procrastination scales reveals that the scales do not distinguish between two facets of implemental delay, onset delay, and delay related to sustained goal striving. We trace this failure to an imprecise understanding of "delay," another core concept in procrastination. This paper discusses the relationship between onset and sustained delay in procrastination, and then describes a new scale attempting to measure these two facets of task implementation. In two studies (aggregated N = 465) we demonstrate, using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, that although onset and sustained action procrastination measures correlate, they are still separate facets of implemental procrastination. Problems with onset delay seem to be particularly important, increasingly so in high procrastinators. Implications, as well as suggestions for further research, are discussed.
This paper examines how procrastinators behave differently from non-procrastinators in implementi... more This paper examines how procrastinators behave differently from non-procrastinators in implementing intended behavior. By focusing on time-related attributes of behavior, we demonstrate in five studies (aggregated N = 965) that onset delay seems to be a preferred option for procrastinators in common daily situations. Thus, when an action possibility is available for intended behavior, procrastinators tend to delay behavior onset, both in actual behavior and in onset preferences, often instigating chains of events with negative consequences. We discuss possible mechanisms responsible for such delays and explore how such mechanisms generate and sustain dilatory behavior. We conclude that a better understanding of why behavioral delays occur in early phases of action implementation is of importance in understanding and preventing procrastination.
How has the concept of metacognition been used within basic and applied psychological research? W... more How has the concept of metacognition been used within basic and applied psychological research? We begin our answer by presenting a broad definition of metacognition, a historical overview of its development and its presence in research databases. To assess which function and facets are most frequently addressed within each of the sub-disciplines, we present results from separate literature searches. We then review how metacognition has been defined and empirically explored within selected sub-disciplines in terms of typical research questions, conceptual definitions, how the concept has been measured, and examples of interesting findings and implications. We identify similarities, inconsistencies, and disagreements across fields and point out areas for future research. Our overall conclusion is that it is useful to consider metacognition as a broad umbrella concept across different domains and across basic and applied research. Nonetheless, we recommend that researchers be more spe...
Scales attempting to measure procrastination focus on different facets of the phenomenon, yet the... more Scales attempting to measure procrastination focus on different facets of the phenomenon, yet they share a common understanding of procrastination as an unnecessary, unwanted, and disadvantageous delay. The present paper examines in a global sample ( = 4,169) five different procrastination scales - Decisional Procrastination Scale (DPS), Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS), Pure Procrastination Scale (PPS), Adult Inventory of Procrastination Scale (AIP), and General Procrastination Scale (GPS), focusing on factor structures and item functioning using Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Item Response Theory. The results indicated that The PPS (12 items selected from DPS, AIP, and GPS) measures different facets of procrastination even better than the three scales it is based on. An even shorter version of the PPS (5 items focusing on irrational delay), corresponds well to the nine-item IPS. Both scales demonstrate good psychometric properties and appear to be superior measures of core...
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Papers by Frode Svartdal