History and Geography

The aim of this study was to estimate the development of fertility and the impact of HIV on this development in North-Central Namibia from 1980 to 2004. The main sources of data consisted of parish registers for eight Evangelical Lutheran congregations, the 1992 and 2000 Namibia Demographic and Health Surveys and the 1991 and 2001 population censuses. Developments in fertility were studied using the total fertility rate (TFR), age-speci? c fertility rates (ASFR), and standardized fertility distributions. The results show that fertility declined from 5.0 in 1980-89 to 4.1 in 1990-99 and to 3.5 in 2000-04. Among women in the 25-29 age group and older, fertility declined, while fertility among adolescents increased. Both age at ? rst marriage and premarital fertility increased during the study period. During the 1990s, HIV infection explained 25-29% of the decline in total fertility. If mortality continues to increase as a result of the HIV epidemic while fertility continues to decline...

In agrarian economies arable land is the most important form of property and productive resource, so that access to land defines the political and social status of a member of society. This paper examines changes in property and particularly land use rights in North-Central Namibia, paying special reference to gender inequality in access to land. The problem is approached by exploring the coping strategies of widowed and divorced persons after the dissolution of their marriage. Where property rights and gender inequality have traditionally been investigated on the basis of administrative records, survey data or oral information, this paper approaches such problems from a new perspective, through life histories of the Christian population transcribed from parish registers of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia. Linking of the parish register data to anthropological, ethnographic, socioeconomic and cultural information markedly widens our scope for discussing rights over communal lands. The paper shows that remarriage was a real solution for many widows and divorced women in the 1930s and 1940s if they were at the best childbearing age. A dramatic decrease in the remarriage rate occurred from the mid-1950s onwards, however, which was related to socioeconomic changes in society.

The Shebeen Culture: 900 drinking places around capital alone", declared Namibia's leading newspaper The Namibian in its special issue dealing with alcohol abuse at the end of 1992 (The Namibian 18 December 1992). Sale and serving of alcohol beverages is not restricted to towns and their surroundings but is available even in the most outlying villages. Strange logos-such as Seven Seas Bottle Store or Love Station Bottle Store-and colourful advertisements clearly distinguish bottle stores and restaurants from other buildings. A characteristic feature of alcohol policy in Namibia during the last two decades has been the rapid increase in the consumption of alcohol beverages and their fair price in comparison e.g. with foodstuffs. Alcohol abuse has become a serious social problem, particularly among the African population, in towns as well as in countryside. The aim of this paper is to make a long-term approach to alcohol abuse in the Namibian territory by concentrating on analysing attitudes of the German and South African colonial administrations towards alcohol.

In agrarian economies arable land is the most important form of property and productive resource, so that access to land defines the political and social status of a member of society. This paper examines changes in property and particularly land use rights in North-Central Namibia, paying special reference to gender inequality in access to land. The problem is approached by exploring the coping strategies of widowed and divorced persons after the dissolution of their marriage. Where property rights and gender inequality have traditionally been investigated on the basis of administrative records, survey data or oral information, this paper approaches such problems from a new perspective, through life histories of the Christian population transcribed from parish registers of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia. Linking of the parish register data to anthropological, ethnographic, socioeconomic and cultural information markedly widens our scope for discussing rights over communal lands. The paper shows that remarriage was a real solution for many widows and divorced women in the 1930s and 1940s if they were at the best childbearing age. A dramatic decrease in the remarriage rate occurred from the mid-1950s onwards, however, which was related to socioeconomic changes in society.

List of Acronyms ACHPR African Charter on Human and People's Rights ACGD African Centre for Gender and Development ADB African Development Bank AGDI African Gender and Development Index AIDS acquired immune deficiency syndrome ALT/AST Alanine Aminotransferase/Asparate Aminotransferase APF Africa Peace Forum APRM African Peer Review Mechanism ART antiretroviral therapy ARVs antiretroviral drugs ASRH Adolescent and sexual reproductive health ASWs Auxiliary Social Workers AU Africa Union AUC African Union Commission AZT Zidovudine (also ZDV) BCC Behaviour change Communication Change BFHI Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative BTS National Blood Transfusion Service of Zimbabwe CAEMC Central African Economic and Monetary Community CAMH Conference of African Ministers of Health CBD Community Based Distribution CBDA Community Based Distribution Agent CBO Community Based Organisation CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against women CHBC Community Health Based Care COMSEC Commonwealth Secretariat CQI Continuous Quality Improvement CTOP Choice on Termination of Pregnancy DANIDA Danish International Development Agency DFID UK Department for International Development DH day hospital DHS Demographic Health Survey DOH Department of Health DOTS Directly Observed Treatment short-course ECA Economic Commission for Africa ECD Early Childhood Development EDLIZ Essential Drugs List for Zimbabwe ELISA Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay EmOC Emergency Obstetric Care EU European Union FP Family Planning GFATM Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria GMS Government Medical Stores GMSPAU Gender Mainstreaming Strategic Plan for the African Union

The main aim of this study was to analyse fertility change in Ovamboland (North-Central Namibia) (1927–2010) and the Kavango region (North-East Namibia) (1935–1979) in Northern Namibia. According to the results, the fertility change was quite similar in both areas: fertility declined during the 1950s compared to the preceding period, 1935–1949. We can assume that the main reason for this early fertility decline was changes in the number of migrant workers (out-migration), which caused changes in both the marriage age and birth intervals. In both Ovamboland and in the Kavango region, fertility increased from the late 1950s into the early 1960s and the fertility transition started at the end of the 1970s. In both areas, the increase in fertility during thelate 1950s and early 1960s was probably due to the improved health situation. Fertility transition started at the end of the 1970s, but mortality had already started to decline before that. The main causes of this declining fertility...

YK:n ilmastoneuvotteluiden (UNCCC) viimeisin osapuolikokous (COP18) pidettiin joulukuussa 2012 Qatarin Dohassa. Kehitysmaiden metsakato ja siihen liittyvat kysymykset (REDD+), kuten markkinalahtoinen metsahiilikauppa ovat olleet neuvottelujen keskiossa. Tuoreimmissa puheenvuoroissa metsista ei enaa keskustella omana kysymyksenaan vaan osana elavaa maaseutua. Seuraavassa tarkastellaan kehitysmaiden metsakadon etenemisesta maapallon metsapinta-alan historiallista muutosta selittavan teorian avulla seka pureudutaan ruohonjuuritason tilanteeseen pohjoisnamibialaisessa maaseutukylassa.

Saharan etelapuolinen Afrikka on nayttaytynyt viimeisten vuosikymmenten aikana monien vaarallisten tartuntatautien, kuten tappavaa verenvuotokuumetta aiheuttavan ebola-viruksen, synnyinsijana. Hiljattain edesmennyt trooppisten tautien professori Robert Desowitz luonnehti malarian, tuberkuloosin, keuhkonkuumeen, ripulin ja sukupuolitautien vaivaamaa Afrikkaa viela ”suhteellisen” terveeksi maanosaksi ennen HI-viruksen rajahdysmaista leviamista. Desowitzin vertaus konkretisoi erinomaisesti HIV/AIDS:in vaikutuksen Afrikan jo muutenkin huonoon kansanterveydelliseen tilaan. Epidemia ei kosketa pelkastaan terveysviranomaisia vaan koettelee yhteiskuntien kaikkia rakenteita.

This study examines fertility decline in North-Central Namibia in the period 1960-2000. A Scandinavian-type parish-register system, established in the beginning of 20th Century and still in use, provided register-based data for fertility analysis. Fertility decline began in 1980, was rapid in the 1980s, levelled off in the early 1990s, started again in 1994 and continued until the year 2000. Fertility declined in every age group, except among the 15-19 year olds, whose fertility increased. Cohort fertility started to decline among the 1940-44 birth cohort. During the 1980s, fertility decline was associated with increasing age at first marriage and declining marital fertility, connected to e.g. the War of Independence. During the 1990s, an increase in both the use of contraceptives and HIV-prevalence contributed to the fertility decline.

Few long-term statistical series exist that can document the mortality transition in Africa. This paper uses data from the parish registers of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia to study mortality in Ovamboland between 1930 and 1990. It identifies significant discontinuities and reversals in the trend in mortality. Much of the mortality transition occurred in a rapid breakthrough concentrated between the early-1950s and early-1960s. Adult mortality fell more than existing model life tables would predict and the pattern of relatively high early-age mortality typical of modern Africa emerged only at this time. While a range of developments in Ovamboland contributed to the overall decline in mortality, the most important factor was the establishment by the Finnish Mission of a Western system of health care. In Ovamboland, the drive to 'good health at low cost' was articulated not through political institutions but through the church.

Objectives: HIV spread rapidly in Namibia in the 1990s. As in most of Africa, however, few data exist to document the impact on mortality of AIDS. Such data can contribute to knowledge of the epidemiology of HIV infection and inform the development of programmes to mitigate the impact of the AIDS epidemic. Design: This study analyses death records from the registers of eight Evangelical Lutheran parishes in northern Namibia. The dataset covers the experience between 1980 and January 2001 of 4680 couples who married between 1956 and 2000 and their children. Methods: We examine trends in post-neonatal and 1-4-years mortality, and the agestandardized death rates at age 20-64 years of both men and women. Poisson regression for rates is used to smooth the data and test for statistically significant discontinuities in the trend. Results: Post-neonatal mortality increased more than sixfold and 1-4-years mortality more than threefold between 1991 and 2000. By 2000 adult mortality for women was 3.5 times, and for men 2.5 times its 1993 level. The increase in adult mortality was concentrated at ages 30-54 years for men and 25-49 years for women. Conclusions: The pattern of mortality increase by age is consistent with the hypothesis that it is entirely due to AIDS. While not widely available, parish registers exist elsewhere in Africa and are potentially a low-cost source of data for study of the impact of AIDS on mortality and demographic trends more generally.

Early European travellers were impressed by the trees and forests of the Owambo region, north Namibia. As they became better acquainted with the Owambo way of life, Europeans began to warn of deforestation in the region. This article explores environmental change and especially deforestation in the Owambo region since the 1850s. The paper discusses the crucial elements affecting deforestation in north Namibia: population growth and settlement patterns, land use practices, the structure of production, consumption patterns of wood, and valuations related to forests. METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS IN STUDYING ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE IN THE AFRICAN CONTEXT We pushed through thick thorns the whole time, and had begun to disbelieve in Ondonga, when quite of a sudden the bushes ceased: we emerged out of them, and the charming corn-country of the Ovambo lay yellow and broad as a sea before us. Fine dense timber-trees, and innumerable palms of all sizes, were scattered over it; part was bare for pasturage, part was thickly covered with high corn stubble; palisadings, each of which enclosed a homestead, were scattered everywhere over the country. The general appearance was that of most abundant fertility. 1

Early European travellers were impressed by the trees and forests of the Owambo region, north Namibia. As they became better acquainted with the Owambo way of life, Europeans began to warn of deforestation in the region. This article explores environmental change and especially deforestation in the Owambo region since the 1850s. The paper discusses the crucial elements affecting deforestation in north Namibia: population growth and settlement patterns, land use practices, the structure of production, consumption patterns of wood, and valuations related to forests. METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS IN STUDYING ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE IN THE AFRICAN CONTEXT We pushed through thick thorns the whole time, and had begun to disbelieve in Ondonga, when quite of a sudden the bushes ceased: we emerged out of them, and the charming corn-country of the Ovambo lay yellow and broad as a sea before us. Fine dense timber-trees, and innumerable palms of all sizes, were scattered over it; part was bare for pasturage, part was thickly covered with high corn stubble; palisadings, each of which enclosed a homestead, were scattered everywhere over the country. The general appearance was that of most abundant fertility. 1

The forest sector has played a crucial role in Finland's national economy. The objective of this paper is to discuss the adaptation of the ideas of scientific forest management practices to Finnish private forestry and the reactions of the private forest owners. The key concepts are forest management by the selection system and devastation of the forests. The conflict between private forest owners and the forestry boards, representing scientific forest management, was entangled around these concepts and their interpretation throughout the period from the 1920s to the 1980s. This conflict is illustrated through a concrete example at the municipal level. The analysis is based on documents related to infringements of the law concerning private forests. The authorities and scientists used forest improvement acts, the first of which was introduced in the late 1920s, to promote their mission of intensifying wood production, and by this means the private forest owners who favoured 'traditional' methods of managing their forests were pushed into following the instructions of the forest authorities. Thus the interests and needs of private forest owners were bypassed in forestry planning. The strict interpretation of the Private Forests Act enabled the forest sector to achieve its goal, but it went too far in the intensification of forestry in the 1960s and 1970s. The 'rebellion' against intensive forestry in the early 1980s was a clear reflection of the need to take the forest owners' diverse wishes into account as well in matters of forest management.

On the worldwide scale Africa is the least-known continent demographically. Until the mid-twentieth century not even the size of the population was precisely known in many areas of sub-Saharan Africa. The major problems in African historical demography have either been the almost total lack of relevant sources or, if some have been available, they have been fragmentary and non-systematic. The reliability of the most commonly-used sources in African historical demography—population counts and early censuses—remained questionable until the 1960s. However, fairly far-reaching conclusions and estimations based on these sources using indirect methods have been drawn. Despite the development of methods in historical demography, the questionable source materials have naturally provided serious grounds for argumentation. An excellent example is the debate between the natalistic and antinatalistic school over changes in fertility and mortality in sub-Saharan African societies during the prec...

NAMIBIALLE "900 salakapakkaa yksin pääkaupungin ympäristössä", otsikoi Namibian johtava sanomalehti The Namibian maan alkoholiongelmia kasitelleet teemasivunsa joulukuussa 1992 (LB.lz.). Alkoholin anniskelu ja myynti Namibiassa ei rajoitu ainoastaan kaupunkeihin ja niiden ympäristöön, vaan sitä on saatavilla kaikkialta teiden varsilta. Savitiilestä tai pellistä rakennettujen viinakauppojen seinien värikkaät mainostekstitesim. Seven Seas Bottle Store, Love Station Bottle Storeerottavat ne näkyvästi muusta rakennuskannasta. Namibian alkoholipolitiikalle on ollut tunnusomaista kahden viime vuosikymmenen aikana väkijuomien helppo saatavuus ja edullisuus suhteessa päivittäistavaroihin. Alkoholin väärinkäytöstä on kehkeytynyt vakava yhteiskunnallinen ongelma afrikkalaisen väestön keskuudessa niin kaupungeissa kuin maaseudulla. Miten nykytilanteeseen on sitten jouduttu ja onko siitä ulospääsyä? VIINAKAUPAN VILTIT VUOSIKYMMENET Pohjois-Namibiassa lahella Angolan rajaa asunut Sakarias Hamutenja kuvasi 1930-luvun alussa suomalaiselle lähetystyöntekijalle Emil Liljebladille juomatapojen muutosta seuraavaan tapaan: "Ennen: kalja ja omagon'