Papers by Keith Ruiter
The Norse Sorceress: Mind and Materiality in the Viking World, 2023
The horse was a ubiquitous feature of the Viking Age. Horses were physically present as a means o... more The horse was a ubiquitous feature of the Viking Age. Horses were physically present as a means of transportation, draught animals, high-value commodities, or non-human companions. They also loomed large in the mindscapes of the Viking Age as symbols of fertility and prestige, key characters in the stories people told, and the subjects of artistic endeavours ranging from poetry to tapestry to inscription. In this chapter, we will explore the ways that horses played a role in ritual and magical practices at the intersection of these physical and conceptual spheres. Taking an interspecies approach to these rituals, it will pay particular attention to questions of personhood, participation, and agency, and comment on some gendered aspects of these acts. It adopts an interdisciplinary approach, drawing on Viking-Age poetry, iconography, and archaeological remains to explore the horse as both ritual object and subject, and asks whether the lines between horse as companion, and horse as ritual actor can be drawn so distinctly.
Animals and Animated Objects in the Early Middle Ages, 2023
This chapter offers new explorations of animal–human relationships, specifically but not limited ... more This chapter offers new explorations of animal–human relationships, specifically but not limited to the human–horse relationship in Viking Age and medieval Scandinavian evidence. Working between literary and legal texts, as well as mortuary archaeology, it asks a key question of these sources: How did medieval Scandinavians conceive of their relationships with certain animals, especially the horse? Taking a posthumanist perspective, the analysis here suggests that animals could occupy a complicated conceptual and legal space that, while not quite ‘human’, was attributed with its own intricate understanding and expression of personhood. This non-human personhood, when explored in transdisciplinary ways, reveals that, much like humans, animals can be both agent and object in medieval networks and mindscapes, making this fertile ground for further inquiry.
Britain and its Neighbours: Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Medieval and Early Modern Europe, 2021
In his Lex Castrensis, the twelfth-century Danish writer Sven Aggesen tells the story of the crea... more In his Lex Castrensis, the twelfth-century Danish writer Sven Aggesen tells the story of the creation of a law that he attributes to Knútr inn ríki (Cnut the Great) as a means of governing his substantial military following of retainers, known as the hirð. As unlikely as it is for Sven to claim that he preserves the law exactly as it was in Knútr's own time, the text's focus on process and punishment raises an intriguing question: can evidence be seen for shifting punitive attitudes and legal exchange in the late Viking-Age period of intense contact, interaction, and accommodation between Scandinavia and the British Isles? This chapter will offer a first step in considering the possibility for the exchange of legal practices and concepts in this context, and present a newly refined picture of England and its Scandinavian neighbours – one which points to sophisticated legal interchange happening much earlier than usually thought.
Narrating Law and Laws of Narration in Medieval Scandinavia, 2020
This chapter makes a close reading of a short vignette in Eyrbyggja saga - the attempted forced m... more This chapter makes a close reading of a short vignette in Eyrbyggja saga - the attempted forced marriage between the Swedish berserk Halli and Víga-Styrr's daughter Ásdis - exploring the ways that various norms and normative expectations are deliberately manipulated by the characters in question to further their own social goals in the narrative.
Social Norms in Medieval Scandinavia, 2019
Norms, normativity, and the transgression thereof have long been topics of special interest in th... more Norms, normativity, and the transgression thereof have long been topics of special interest in the social sciences; however, these studies routinely demonstrate an inherent fluidity between normativity and deviance, making the study of either in isolation problematic. For this reason, deviance and normativity are most often considered together, due to the manifold ways that understandings of one naturally aids understanding the other. From the perspective of language, this is in fact not especially surprising as concepts tend to be most easily defined by what they are not, rather than what precisely they are. This fluidity of understandings of deviance and normativity is highly visible in many Old Norse texts as well and recently the study of norms, normativity, and deviance in these texts has enjoyed a certain vogue, not the least demonstrated by the present collection of papers. However, examinations of this normative fluidity are few and far between, as are lexical and semantic studies of the terms used to delineate non-normative behaviors, which highlights a problematic hole in our understandings of the contemporary associations around these terms. This chapter conducts an examination of select lexical choices in medieval Scandinavian texts to better understand the contemporary web of associations surrounding non-normative and transgressive behaviors.
Viking and Medieval Scandinavia, 2018
This article takes a fresh look at the use of judicial violence in the societies of Viking-Age En... more This article takes a fresh look at the use of judicial violence in the societies of Viking-Age England and Scandinavia. Using interdisciplinary methodologies, it considers legal, historical, literary, and archaeological evidence for judicially-prescribed maiming and execution. Using this evidence, it describes the English and Scandinavian systems of judicial violence in new detail, reflecting on important aspects of each in turn before turning to a more comparative approach to redirect debate and focus future work.
The Historian , 2019
This short paper was an invited contribution to The Historian's thematic issue on Literature and ... more This short paper was an invited contribution to The Historian's thematic issue on Literature and focuses on the ongoing interdisciplinary developments in recent years that continue to cast new light on the complex, sophisticated, and practical details of the Viking Age and medieval Scandinavian legal systems.
Education in the North, Aug 11, 2018
At the University of the Arctic Rectors’ Forum, held on 23rd of August 2017 at the University of ... more At the University of the Arctic Rectors’ Forum, held on 23rd of August 2017 at the University of Aberdeen, Early-Career Scholars collaboratively developed a proposal on the Forum theme of The Inhabited Arctic: Lands, Peoples and Scholarship in the Circumpolar North. This interdisciplinary group focused on developing opportunities in circumpolar scholarship, tackling the pressing challenges of geopolitical circumstances, scarce research funding and shifting national agendas. The following feature embodies a shared voice focussed on promoting capacity building in the UArctic and enhancing accessibility of teaching and research in the North. The wider recognition of this shared voice is vital for sustainability.
Illuminating the North: Proceedings from the Nordic Research Network, Sep 2014
Recent archaeological interest in assembly sites has yielded an impressive array of newly nuanced... more Recent archaeological interest in assembly sites has yielded an impressive array of newly nuanced information about the relationship between authority and visibility in the physical, judicial, and social landscapes of medieval Scandinavia. Though important on their own, the developments in archaeology call for similar progress to be attempted in related disciplines, in the hope of synthesising a more detailed picture. This paper takes a preliminary step in this direction by considering the early sagas of Heimskringla with the relationship between authority and visibility in mind. By focussing on one particular expression of authority in these sagas – that of state-sanctioned judicial execution – this paper will attempt to trace how the evolution of Scandinavian power-structures is portrayed in Heimskringla.
The intent of the following paper is to expound on new algorithmic ideas that show marked improve... more The intent of the following paper is to expound on new algorithmic ideas that show marked improvement over formerly state-of-the-art functions in HIV-1 subtyping, such as those found in Wu et al. and NCBI. The paper identifies deficiencies in these older conceptions and sets forth, in a clear and simplistic manner, our improved methodology. The two main boons to the new method described below are the development and utilization of reference profiles and the increased recombination prediction accuracy due to increased branching options and redesigned replacement policies. There is also a new importance placed on absolute prediction accuracy, thus making room for a multitude of real-world possibilities.
Doctoral Thesis by Keith Ruiter
Mannjafnaðr: a Study of Normativity, Transgression, and Social Pragmatism in Medieval Scandinavia, 2018
This thesis explores the relationship between the concepts of normativity and transgression in me... more This thesis explores the relationship between the concepts of normativity and transgression in medieval Scandinavia. Using an innovative interdisciplinary approach to diverse evidence-sets, it demonstrates the complexity and multivalence of these concepts and argues for a substantial degree of normative pragmatism operating in this cultural milieu.
Highlighting a resurgence in medieval Scandinavian legal scholarship and new strides in the study of outlaws and marginality, Chapter 1 demonstrates this study’s timeliness. It points to developments in the social sciences as interpretive tools, stressing the importance of considering multiple spectrums of normativity to better interrogate the social complexity of the medieval past.
Chapter 2 presents a number of relevant theoretical approaches for the study and defines the normative spectrums to be explored – one related to legal norms, one to honour norms, and one to moral norms – by way of semantic analysis. Using this conceptual underpinning, it presents a coherent methodological toolkit.
Chapter 3 puts this toolkit to work in the world of the Íslendingasögur, exploring the nuances of normativity and transgression as they manifest in this generic setting. It makes the case for a characteristic pragmatism in considering all but the most grievous transgressions and points to a relaxed attitude toward the stigmatisation of transgressors.
To consider presentations of normativity and transgression in other genres, Chapter 4 uses this toolkit to explore eddic poetry. Doing so demonstrates further nuances, though the same characteristic normative pragmatism appears across these genre divides, potentially signalling an earlier root to these normative attitudes.
Chapter 5 situates these concepts in the lived experience of medieval Scandinavians by exploring atypical burials as potential sites for normative negotiation. This is achieved by blending archaeological and literary analyses to consider how conceptualisations of normativity and transgression played out at the graveside, using the burial ground at Kopparsvik as an example.
This is a short extract from my doctoral thesis (defended 5 December 2018). If interested, please... more This is a short extract from my doctoral thesis (defended 5 December 2018). If interested, please email me for a PDF copy.
This thesis explores the relationship between the concepts of normativity and transgression in medieval Scandinavia. Using an innovative interdisciplinary approach to diverse evidence-sets, it demonstrates the complexity and multivalence of these concepts and argues for a substantial degree of normative pragmatism operating in this cultural milieu.
Book Reviews by Keith Ruiter
Apardjón Journal for Scandinavian Studies, 2021
This book, like the features of many of the assembly sites that occupy its analysis, is something... more This book, like the features of many of the assembly sites that occupy its analysis, is something monumental. With its roots stretching back to 2004 in the groundwork that paved the way for The Assembly Project, Viking Law and Order builds impressively off this carefully laid foundation, fully living up to its early promise to transcend descriptions of Old Norse assembly (þing) sites and enter into a rich investigation of the human practices and experiences at these assemblies. Sanmark’s approach throughout is chronologically broad but careful and thoroughly multidisciplinary, allowing for new macro-level connections, analyses, and conclusions to be drawn. All this makes this monograph an indispensable contribution to scholarship that will be of interest to a wide range of researchers across a variety of fields.
Early Medieval Europe, 2021
This monograph is – much like the houses at the heart of its study – more than the sum of its par... more This monograph is – much like the houses at the heart of its study – more than the sum of its parts. In combining some of her earlier work on doors, doorways, and rings with a variety of never before published material, Marianne Hem Eriksen brings together a diversity of under‐considered material evidence and different theoretical approaches into a multivalent analysis of the corpus of house sites in late Iron Age Norway. She has also compiled these into a helpful appendix, and excellent illustrations of the houses and other relevant material are provided throughout the text, complementing her points. By its nature, the book is most appealing and accessible to those with archaeological interests; however, more textually focussed scholars will find a great deal of food for thought in its pages as well.
Conference Presentations by Keith Ruiter
While the adage ‘með lögum skal land byggja’ carried a deep resonance across the medieval Scandin... more While the adage ‘með lögum skal land byggja’ carried a deep resonance across the medieval Scandinavian milieu, particularly in Iceland, those who transgressed these laws were often subject to varying degrees of outlawry and pushed outside the protections of both law and land. However, it would seem that not all outlaws are equal in this exclusion. This paper will explore two of the most famous ‘outlaw sagas’, using three discrete normative spectrums to better understand the ways in which the eponymous heroes of these sagas navigate contemporary ideas of normativity, deviance, and expected behaviours. By comparing the careers of Gísli Súrsson and Grettir Ásmundarson, and the behaviours they exhibit in their respective sagas, comment will be made on the transgressions they commit, the societal response to those transgressions, and the relationships they are able to maintain or forge during their sentences. This approach will demonstrate a distinct difference in the careers of these famous outlaws, highlighting the importance of more nuanced approaches to issues of ‘otherness’ and a move away from the dichotomous understandings that were popularised by structuralist interpretations.
Scholars like William Ian Miller have stressed the importance of talionic balancing and legal equ... more Scholars like William Ian Miller have stressed the importance of talionic balancing and legal equilibrium in the society depicted in the sagas of Iceland, as well as the complex ways that these concepts operate in the proceedings of legal feud. However, despite this society’s interest in legal balance and its apparent long memory for personal slights, it is striking that evidence of societal stigmas attached to criminal activity are quite rare. Certain legal categories, full outlaws for example, do indeed seem to carry a stigmatic charge at an early date, but beyond this, the collective social memory for criminal activity is remarkably short. Taking a comparative approach to the evidence, this paper will explore these stigmas where they occur, as well as conduct an examination the legal processes and societal structures that might allow for early medieval Scandinavians to collectively recover from legal transgressions.
Insults are powerful motivators for violent retaliation, but insulting one’s honour is itself met... more Insults are powerful motivators for violent retaliation, but insulting one’s honour is itself metaphysically violent. This verbal violence is particularly discernable in societies with highly developed honour systems, such as early medieval Scandinavia where, for example, entire classes of words and phrases were rendered illegal due to their defamatory power. In some cases, these utterances could result in harsher punishments than wounding, suggesting that, while sticks and stones might hurt, words had a remarkably violent power in these societies.
Utilising historical, literary, legal, and linguistic methodologies, this paper sets out to consider these most taboo utterances from conceptual and semantic perspectives to better understand why they were so serious. It then examines some of the possible responses – both legal and extra-legal, formal and informal – that could be levied in reply. The conclusions of this paper will help to better nuance understandings of the tightly interlaced fields of honour, shame, law, language, and both physical and non-physical violence in early medieval Scandinavia.
A paper presented at "Animals and Animated Objects in Past Societies." III International Interdis... more A paper presented at "Animals and Animated Objects in Past Societies." III International Interdisciplinary Meetings, Bytów: Muzeum Zachodniokaszubskie w Bytowie, 16-17th December 2017.
While the rise of ecocriticism and animal studies has opened new avenues of inquiry in the study of Old Norse societies, much of the research arising from analysis of the texts, art, and artefacts of these societies routinely demonstrates that the line between the categories of human and animal was not always sharply defined. From the almost feral portrayal of berserkir in the Islendingasögur, to the interaction of anthropomorphic and zoomorphic forms in early Scandinavian ornamentation, to the ritualised treatment of human and animal bodies in burials, there is an evident overlap between the human and animal spheres of influence, and this ambiguity itself is a subject ripe for examination.
Utilising literary, linguistic, legal, and archaeological methodologies, this paper will use a selection of textual and archaeological material to explore and nuance this overlap. Laws, saga texts and atypical burials will be utilised to examine some of the evidence demonstrating an early Scandinavian understanding of animals as both objects and as agents. The paper will then conclude with a discussion of Freyfaxi, the prized equine companion to Hrafnkell Freysgoði, in order to consider the possibility of legal significance being ascribed to animal actions and its wider ramifications.
3rd international Selskab for østnordisk filologi konference, 2017
In the wake of recent major scholarly efforts, such as the Voices of Law and Medieval Nordic Laws... more In the wake of recent major scholarly efforts, such as the Voices of Law and Medieval Nordic Laws projects, it is increasingly clear that revisiting the topics of Scandinavian law and legal language in light of recent scholarship can be a highly productive undertaking in a cluster of interrelated disciplines, philology being no exception. This paper will demonstrate the importance of philological and historical-linguistic considerations in these pursuits by revisiting the Old Swedish outlaw term biltogh/biltugh and the related adjective biltogher/biltugher. Though much discussed by the philologists of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, a conclusive etymology for these words has never been produced. Not only will this paper suggest a new etymology for this intriguing word, it will also offer a new perspective on two key questions: 1) why this word rose to prominence in medieval Swedish legislation? and 2) why its usage seems to be confined to Sweden?
While scholars in the social sciences have long demonstrated a rich and mutually-informative rela... more While scholars in the social sciences have long demonstrated a rich and mutually-informative relationship between normativity and deviance, scholars of medieval Scandinavia have tended to focus their attention primarily on normative individuals and practices. Given that, as a rule, it is easier to define something by what it is not rather than what it precisely is, this hole in the research is surprising. In an effort to more clearly understand non-normative behaviours in medieval Scandinavia, this paper will consider some of the particular lexical choices in early medieval Scandinavian texts to better understand the contemporary web of associations surrounding deviance and deviants.
Utilising philological, historical, literary, and legal methodologies, this paper sets out to consider some words used to describe non-normative peoples and behaviours in three categories: terms relating to law, honour, and morality. These terms will be compared across textual forms and regional divides. This comparative approach will yield a greater understanding and more nuanced definition of the conceptual associations surrounding three broad types of normative transgression in early medieval Scandinavia.
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Papers by Keith Ruiter
Doctoral Thesis by Keith Ruiter
Highlighting a resurgence in medieval Scandinavian legal scholarship and new strides in the study of outlaws and marginality, Chapter 1 demonstrates this study’s timeliness. It points to developments in the social sciences as interpretive tools, stressing the importance of considering multiple spectrums of normativity to better interrogate the social complexity of the medieval past.
Chapter 2 presents a number of relevant theoretical approaches for the study and defines the normative spectrums to be explored – one related to legal norms, one to honour norms, and one to moral norms – by way of semantic analysis. Using this conceptual underpinning, it presents a coherent methodological toolkit.
Chapter 3 puts this toolkit to work in the world of the Íslendingasögur, exploring the nuances of normativity and transgression as they manifest in this generic setting. It makes the case for a characteristic pragmatism in considering all but the most grievous transgressions and points to a relaxed attitude toward the stigmatisation of transgressors.
To consider presentations of normativity and transgression in other genres, Chapter 4 uses this toolkit to explore eddic poetry. Doing so demonstrates further nuances, though the same characteristic normative pragmatism appears across these genre divides, potentially signalling an earlier root to these normative attitudes.
Chapter 5 situates these concepts in the lived experience of medieval Scandinavians by exploring atypical burials as potential sites for normative negotiation. This is achieved by blending archaeological and literary analyses to consider how conceptualisations of normativity and transgression played out at the graveside, using the burial ground at Kopparsvik as an example.
This thesis explores the relationship between the concepts of normativity and transgression in medieval Scandinavia. Using an innovative interdisciplinary approach to diverse evidence-sets, it demonstrates the complexity and multivalence of these concepts and argues for a substantial degree of normative pragmatism operating in this cultural milieu.
Book Reviews by Keith Ruiter
Conference Presentations by Keith Ruiter
Utilising historical, literary, legal, and linguistic methodologies, this paper sets out to consider these most taboo utterances from conceptual and semantic perspectives to better understand why they were so serious. It then examines some of the possible responses – both legal and extra-legal, formal and informal – that could be levied in reply. The conclusions of this paper will help to better nuance understandings of the tightly interlaced fields of honour, shame, law, language, and both physical and non-physical violence in early medieval Scandinavia.
While the rise of ecocriticism and animal studies has opened new avenues of inquiry in the study of Old Norse societies, much of the research arising from analysis of the texts, art, and artefacts of these societies routinely demonstrates that the line between the categories of human and animal was not always sharply defined. From the almost feral portrayal of berserkir in the Islendingasögur, to the interaction of anthropomorphic and zoomorphic forms in early Scandinavian ornamentation, to the ritualised treatment of human and animal bodies in burials, there is an evident overlap between the human and animal spheres of influence, and this ambiguity itself is a subject ripe for examination.
Utilising literary, linguistic, legal, and archaeological methodologies, this paper will use a selection of textual and archaeological material to explore and nuance this overlap. Laws, saga texts and atypical burials will be utilised to examine some of the evidence demonstrating an early Scandinavian understanding of animals as both objects and as agents. The paper will then conclude with a discussion of Freyfaxi, the prized equine companion to Hrafnkell Freysgoði, in order to consider the possibility of legal significance being ascribed to animal actions and its wider ramifications.
Utilising philological, historical, literary, and legal methodologies, this paper sets out to consider some words used to describe non-normative peoples and behaviours in three categories: terms relating to law, honour, and morality. These terms will be compared across textual forms and regional divides. This comparative approach will yield a greater understanding and more nuanced definition of the conceptual associations surrounding three broad types of normative transgression in early medieval Scandinavia.
Highlighting a resurgence in medieval Scandinavian legal scholarship and new strides in the study of outlaws and marginality, Chapter 1 demonstrates this study’s timeliness. It points to developments in the social sciences as interpretive tools, stressing the importance of considering multiple spectrums of normativity to better interrogate the social complexity of the medieval past.
Chapter 2 presents a number of relevant theoretical approaches for the study and defines the normative spectrums to be explored – one related to legal norms, one to honour norms, and one to moral norms – by way of semantic analysis. Using this conceptual underpinning, it presents a coherent methodological toolkit.
Chapter 3 puts this toolkit to work in the world of the Íslendingasögur, exploring the nuances of normativity and transgression as they manifest in this generic setting. It makes the case for a characteristic pragmatism in considering all but the most grievous transgressions and points to a relaxed attitude toward the stigmatisation of transgressors.
To consider presentations of normativity and transgression in other genres, Chapter 4 uses this toolkit to explore eddic poetry. Doing so demonstrates further nuances, though the same characteristic normative pragmatism appears across these genre divides, potentially signalling an earlier root to these normative attitudes.
Chapter 5 situates these concepts in the lived experience of medieval Scandinavians by exploring atypical burials as potential sites for normative negotiation. This is achieved by blending archaeological and literary analyses to consider how conceptualisations of normativity and transgression played out at the graveside, using the burial ground at Kopparsvik as an example.
This thesis explores the relationship between the concepts of normativity and transgression in medieval Scandinavia. Using an innovative interdisciplinary approach to diverse evidence-sets, it demonstrates the complexity and multivalence of these concepts and argues for a substantial degree of normative pragmatism operating in this cultural milieu.
Utilising historical, literary, legal, and linguistic methodologies, this paper sets out to consider these most taboo utterances from conceptual and semantic perspectives to better understand why they were so serious. It then examines some of the possible responses – both legal and extra-legal, formal and informal – that could be levied in reply. The conclusions of this paper will help to better nuance understandings of the tightly interlaced fields of honour, shame, law, language, and both physical and non-physical violence in early medieval Scandinavia.
While the rise of ecocriticism and animal studies has opened new avenues of inquiry in the study of Old Norse societies, much of the research arising from analysis of the texts, art, and artefacts of these societies routinely demonstrates that the line between the categories of human and animal was not always sharply defined. From the almost feral portrayal of berserkir in the Islendingasögur, to the interaction of anthropomorphic and zoomorphic forms in early Scandinavian ornamentation, to the ritualised treatment of human and animal bodies in burials, there is an evident overlap between the human and animal spheres of influence, and this ambiguity itself is a subject ripe for examination.
Utilising literary, linguistic, legal, and archaeological methodologies, this paper will use a selection of textual and archaeological material to explore and nuance this overlap. Laws, saga texts and atypical burials will be utilised to examine some of the evidence demonstrating an early Scandinavian understanding of animals as both objects and as agents. The paper will then conclude with a discussion of Freyfaxi, the prized equine companion to Hrafnkell Freysgoði, in order to consider the possibility of legal significance being ascribed to animal actions and its wider ramifications.
Utilising philological, historical, literary, and legal methodologies, this paper sets out to consider some words used to describe non-normative peoples and behaviours in three categories: terms relating to law, honour, and morality. These terms will be compared across textual forms and regional divides. This comparative approach will yield a greater understanding and more nuanced definition of the conceptual associations surrounding three broad types of normative transgression in early medieval Scandinavia.
Using interdisciplinary methodologies, this paper begins with a synthesis of textual and archaeological evidence for judicially-prescribed maiming and execution. This evidence is used to highlight new details of the frameworks of the discrete English and continental Scandinavian systems of judicial violence, shedding light on the structures, settings, and motivations of the systems in question. These syntheses and comparisons clarify the picture of how the social technology of judicial violence operated in each society. Using these newly synthesised findings as a sort of groundwork, the paper then moves on to demonstrate their usefulness in a case study of the punitive attitude prevailing during the multicultural reign of Knútr the Great. This particular period was chosen as a case study for several reasons: first, it was characterised by especial ideological interaction between England and Scandinavia; second, it had a demonstrably changing landscape of juridical attitudes; and finally, it is rich in textual and archaeological evidence. This paper will demonstrate how these features make Knútr’s reign a particularly productive case for considering judicially-violent punishment.
Graduate students working with the Institute for the Public Understanding of the Past at the University of York examine here the evidence for Richard’s connections with the north.
This website was part of a series of events across the region between June 2013–June 2014.
http://forskning.no/2016/07/vikingene-talte-ikke-fornaermelser
This article briefly explores some of the peculiarities of law and order in Viking-Age Scandinavia and highlights some of my work on law and punishment as well as recent research undertaken by Anne-Irene Riisøy on law, poetry, and mythology. The interviews took place at the Viking World: Diversity and Change conference at the University of Nottingham in June 2016.
Reprinted on Videnskab.dk
http://videnskab.dk/kultur-samfund/vikingerne-taalte-ikke-fornaermelser
Translation by Stephanie Lammers-Clark
Reprinted on Sciencenordic.com
http://sciencenordic.com/%E2%80%99twas-dangerous-insult-viking?utm_content=buffera8e65&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer
Translation by Ingrid P. Nurse