Theory and research agree that connectedness to the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT... more Theory and research agree that connectedness to the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community is an important construct to account for in understanding issues related to health and well-being among gay and bisexual men. However, the measurement of this construct among lesbian and bisexual women or racial and ethnic minority individuals has not yet been adequately investigated. This study examined the reliability and validity of an existing measure of connectedness to the LGBT Community among a diverse group of sexual minority individuals in New York City, and whether differences in connectedness existed across gender and race or ethnicity. Scores on the measure demonstrated both internal consistency and construct stability across subgroups defined by gender and race or ethnicity. The subgroups did not differ in their mean levels of connectedness, and scores on the measure demonstrated factorial, convergent, and discriminant validity, both generally and within each of the subgroups. Inconsistencies were observed with regard to which scores on the measure demonstrated predictive validity in their associations with indicators of mental health and well-being. The scale is a useful tool for researchers and practitioners interested in understanding the role of community connectedness in the lives of diverse populations of sexual minority individuals.
Despite its centrality to social stress theory, research on the social patterning of stress expos... more Despite its centrality to social stress theory, research on the social patterning of stress exposure and coping resources has been sparse and existing research shows conflicting results. We interviewed 396 gay, lesbian and bisexual, and 128 heterosexual people in New York City to examine variability in exposure to stress related to sexual orientation, gender, and race/ethnicity. Multiple linear regression showed clear support for the social stress hypothesis with regard to race/ethnic minority status, somewhat mixed support with regard to sexual orientation, and no support with regard to gender. We discuss this lack of parsimony in social stress explanations for health disparities.
We examined the associations between internalized homophobia, outness, community connectedness, d... more We examined the associations between internalized homophobia, outness, community connectedness, depressive symptoms, and relationship quality among a diverse community sample of 396 lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals. Structural equation models showed that internalized homophobia was associated with greater relationship problems both generally and among coupled participants independent of outness and community connectedness. Depressive symptoms mediated the association between internalized homophobia and relationship problems. This study improves current understandings of the association between internalized homophobia and relationship quality by distinguishing between the effects of the core construct of internalized homophobia and its correlates and outcomes. The findings are useful for counselors interested in interventions and treatment approaches to help LGB individuals cope with internalized homophobia and relationship problems.
Negative attitudes and discriminatory policies pertaining to same-sex relationships create social... more Negative attitudes and discriminatory policies pertaining to same-sex relationships create social and structural inequalities, privileging heterosexuals’ abilities to achieve intimacy while impeding the intimacy-related pursuits of lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals. This study examined the pursuit of intimacy in the form of intimacy-related personal projects among a sample of 431 LGB and heterosexual individuals. LGBs and heterosexuals did not differ in how meaningful they rated their intimacy projects. LGBs perceived more devaluation and barriers to achieving their intimacy projects than heterosexuals. These differences were more pronounced at the macrosocial level (e.g., laws and policies). No significant sexual orientation differences were observed regarding participants’ job-related projects, highlighting the domain specificity of project devaluation and barriers. Results suggest that the pursuit of intimacy is highly meaningful for both LGBs and heterosexuals. Nonetheless, LGBs experience minority stressors specific to their relational pursuits from both interpersonal and macrosocial sources, including discriminatory laws and policies.
Experiences of closeness in romantic relationships are associated with heightened levels of relat... more Experiences of closeness in romantic relationships are associated with heightened levels of relational well-being and mental health. However, individuals differ in the degree of closeness they desire in their relationships. This study used the construct of inclusion of other in self (IOS) to analyze discrepancies between individuals’ actual and ideal levels of closeness in their relationships and the implications of these discrepancies for relational well-being and mental health. A longitudinal survey of partnered individuals demonstrated that optimal levels of relational well-being and mental health existed when individuals had minimal discrepancies between actual and ideal IOS, regardless of their actual levels of IOS. Individuals whose actual levels of IOS moved closer to their ideal levels over a 2-year period reported improved relational well-being and mental health. Individuals with little to no discrepancies between actual and ideal IOS were also less likely to break-up with their partners over time.
This paper presents an integrative review of current and classic theory and research on social st... more This paper presents an integrative review of current and classic theory and research on social stigma and its consequences for the socially stigmatized. Specific attention is paid to stigma-related processes surrounding race⁄ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation. The origins and perpetration of social stigma are discussed alongside perspectives on how stigmatized groups and individuals experience stigma-related stress. Consideration is given to responses to stigma in the form of coping, social support, and meaning-making processes. Both the potential negative and positive consequences of social stigma are highlighted in this review through the integration of predominant social psychological theory with emerging critical and feminist theories of positive marginality and resistance. The paper culminates in a theoretical process model designed to provoke future theory and research that share its integrative aims.
Theory and research agree that connectedness to the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT... more Theory and research agree that connectedness to the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community is an important construct to account for in understanding issues related to health and well-being among gay and bisexual men. However, the measurement of this construct among lesbian and bisexual women or racial and ethnic minority individuals has not yet been adequately investigated. This study examined the reliability and validity of an existing measure of connectedness to the LGBT Community among a diverse group of sexual minority individuals in New York City, and whether differences in connectedness existed across gender and race or ethnicity. Scores on the measure demonstrated both internal consistency and construct stability across subgroups defined by gender and race or ethnicity. The subgroups did not differ in their mean levels of connectedness, and scores on the measure demonstrated factorial, convergent, and discriminant validity, both generally and within each of the subgroups. Inconsistencies were observed with regard to which scores on the measure demonstrated predictive validity in their associations with indicators of mental health and well-being. The scale is a useful tool for researchers and practitioners interested in understanding the role of community connectedness in the lives of diverse populations of sexual minority individuals.
Despite its centrality to social stress theory, research on the social patterning of stress expos... more Despite its centrality to social stress theory, research on the social patterning of stress exposure and coping resources has been sparse and existing research shows conflicting results. We interviewed 396 gay, lesbian and bisexual, and 128 heterosexual people in New York City to examine variability in exposure to stress related to sexual orientation, gender, and race/ethnicity. Multiple linear regression showed clear support for the social stress hypothesis with regard to race/ethnic minority status, somewhat mixed support with regard to sexual orientation, and no support with regard to gender. We discuss this lack of parsimony in social stress explanations for health disparities.
We examined the associations between internalized homophobia, outness, community connectedness, d... more We examined the associations between internalized homophobia, outness, community connectedness, depressive symptoms, and relationship quality among a diverse community sample of 396 lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals. Structural equation models showed that internalized homophobia was associated with greater relationship problems both generally and among coupled participants independent of outness and community connectedness. Depressive symptoms mediated the association between internalized homophobia and relationship problems. This study improves current understandings of the association between internalized homophobia and relationship quality by distinguishing between the effects of the core construct of internalized homophobia and its correlates and outcomes. The findings are useful for counselors interested in interventions and treatment approaches to help LGB individuals cope with internalized homophobia and relationship problems.
Negative attitudes and discriminatory policies pertaining to same-sex relationships create social... more Negative attitudes and discriminatory policies pertaining to same-sex relationships create social and structural inequalities, privileging heterosexuals’ abilities to achieve intimacy while impeding the intimacy-related pursuits of lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals. This study examined the pursuit of intimacy in the form of intimacy-related personal projects among a sample of 431 LGB and heterosexual individuals. LGBs and heterosexuals did not differ in how meaningful they rated their intimacy projects. LGBs perceived more devaluation and barriers to achieving their intimacy projects than heterosexuals. These differences were more pronounced at the macrosocial level (e.g., laws and policies). No significant sexual orientation differences were observed regarding participants’ job-related projects, highlighting the domain specificity of project devaluation and barriers. Results suggest that the pursuit of intimacy is highly meaningful for both LGBs and heterosexuals. Nonetheless, LGBs experience minority stressors specific to their relational pursuits from both interpersonal and macrosocial sources, including discriminatory laws and policies.
Experiences of closeness in romantic relationships are associated with heightened levels of relat... more Experiences of closeness in romantic relationships are associated with heightened levels of relational well-being and mental health. However, individuals differ in the degree of closeness they desire in their relationships. This study used the construct of inclusion of other in self (IOS) to analyze discrepancies between individuals’ actual and ideal levels of closeness in their relationships and the implications of these discrepancies for relational well-being and mental health. A longitudinal survey of partnered individuals demonstrated that optimal levels of relational well-being and mental health existed when individuals had minimal discrepancies between actual and ideal IOS, regardless of their actual levels of IOS. Individuals whose actual levels of IOS moved closer to their ideal levels over a 2-year period reported improved relational well-being and mental health. Individuals with little to no discrepancies between actual and ideal IOS were also less likely to break-up with their partners over time.
This paper presents an integrative review of current and classic theory and research on social st... more This paper presents an integrative review of current and classic theory and research on social stigma and its consequences for the socially stigmatized. Specific attention is paid to stigma-related processes surrounding race⁄ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation. The origins and perpetration of social stigma are discussed alongside perspectives on how stigmatized groups and individuals experience stigma-related stress. Consideration is given to responses to stigma in the form of coping, social support, and meaning-making processes. Both the potential negative and positive consequences of social stigma are highlighted in this review through the integration of predominant social psychological theory with emerging critical and feminist theories of positive marginality and resistance. The paper culminates in a theoretical process model designed to provoke future theory and research that share its integrative aims.
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Papers by David M Frost