Major advances in biology and ecology have sharpened our understanding of what the goals of biodi... more Major advances in biology and ecology have sharpened our understanding of what the goals of biodiversity conservation might be, but less progress has been made on how to achieve conservation in the complex, multi-sectoral world of human affairs. The failure to deliver conservation outcomes is especially severe in the rapidly changing landscapes of tropical low-income countries. We describe five techniques we have used to complement and strengthen long-term attempts to achieve conservation outcomes in the landscapes and seascapes of such regions; these are complex social-ecological systems shaped by interactions between biological, ecological and physical features mediated by the actions of people. Conservation outcomes occur as a result of human decisions and the governance arrangements that guide change. However, much conservation science in these countries is not rooted in a deep understanding of how these social-ecological systems work and what really determines the behaviour of the people whose decisions shape the future of landscapes. We describe five scientific practices that we have found to be effective in building relationships with actors in landscapes and influencing their behaviour in ways that reconcile conservation and development. We have used open-ended inductive enquiry, theories of change, simulation models, network analysis and multi-criteria analysis. These techniques are all widely known and well tested, but seldom figure in externally funded conservation projects. We have used these techniques to complement and strengthen existing interventions of international conservation agencies. These five techniques have proven effective in achieving deeper understanding of context, engagement with all stakeholders, negotiation of shared goals and continuous learning and adaptation.
This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative... more This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY
Context In recent years, landscape sustainability, the maintenance and improvement of biodiversit... more Context In recent years, landscape sustainability, the maintenance and improvement of biodiversity, ecosystem services, and human well-being in landscapes, has become a core objective of conservation initiatives. Yet efforts to promote sustainability often conflict with other landscape objectives. Globally, integrated landscape approaches have emerged as desirable processes for reconciling these conflicts. Integrated landscape approaches seek to foster improvements in landscape-scale governance to meet sustainability objectives. Objectives As scientific and political support for these new landscape approaches continues to advance internationally, there is a need to learn from the processes, constraints, and opportunities. We seek to enrich understandings of landscape approaches and their contributions to governance and sustainability through conserving biodiversity and maintaining ecosystem services. Methods Focusing on eight case studies at different stages of development in Indonesia, we explore how practitioners influence landscape sustainability
Network analysis has emerged as a useful practice for characterizing governance relationships and... more Network analysis has emerged as a useful practice for characterizing governance relationships and providing insights to the power relations that affect landscapes. We applied actor network analysis in two rural Cambodian landscapes to examine decision-making structures that affect conservation and development systems. Using questionnaire data, we analyze structural features of networks of cooperation and exchange to identify patterns of action and processes of change. We supplement our analysis with qualitative information gathered on power and social-ecological components of landscapes to enrich our understanding of natural resource systems. We find that power in Cambodia is concentrated in a central hierarchy, and external actors aiming to influence decision making would benefit from operating at multiple scales; there is no single leverage point for interventions. Cooperation between conservation and development actors is lacking; we observe that actors tend to cluster within similar groups. Cross-sectoral collaboration may be enhanced by knowledge brokers, but current actors lack resources to fulfil this role and require external support. Our study highlights the importance of nongovernment actors as conveners and facilitators to shape natural resource governance in the context of weak institutions. We advocate more institutionalized use of diagnostics, such as actor network analysis, for enhanced natural resource governance.
Seram is Indonesia's 8th largest island. It is central to the historic spice islands, once a hotb... more Seram is Indonesia's 8th largest island. It is central to the historic spice islands, once a hotbed for international trade of profitable tree-products, primarily clove and nutmeg. Recent increased rates of social and ecological change, including costly conflicts, present Seram with new challenges and opportunities for conservation and development. Using place-based transdisciplinary research methods, we diagnose the problems emerging in Seram. Engaging with actors across multiple scales and sectors, we explore drivers of change, social-ecological impacts, and institutional arrangements that might achieve improved inclusive and sustainable development outcomes. Traditional and formal governance arrangements require harmonizing to optimize the benefits and costs from large-scale investments arriving in Seram. Organizations wishing to achieve positive impact can more strategically engage with the broad range of actors to harmonize divergent visions for the future and confront the reality of incoming investments and infrastructure.
Major advances in biology and ecology have sharpened our understanding of what the goals of biodi... more Major advances in biology and ecology have sharpened our understanding of what the goals of biodiversity conservation might be, but less progress has been made on how to achieve conservation in the complex, multi-sectoral world of human affairs. The failure to deliver conservation outcomes is especially severe in the rapidly changing landscapes of tropical low-income countries. We describe five techniques we have used to complement and strengthen long-term attempts to achieve conservation outcomes in the landscapes and seascapes of such regions; these are complex social-ecological systems shaped by interactions between biological, ecological and physical features mediated by the actions of people. Conservation outcomes occur as a result of human decisions and the governance arrangements that guide change. However, much conservation science in these countries is not rooted in a deep understanding of how these social-ecological systems work and what really determines the behaviour of the people whose decisions shape the future of landscapes. We describe five scientific practices that we have found to be effective in building relationships with actors in landscapes and influencing their behaviour in ways that reconcile conservation and development. We have used open-ended inductive enquiry, theories of change, simulation models, network analysis and multi-criteria analysis. These techniques are all widely known and well tested, but seldom figure in externally funded conservation projects. We have used these techniques to complement and strengthen existing interventions of international conservation agencies. These five techniques have proven effective in achieving deeper understanding of context, engagement with all stake-holders, negotiation of shared goals and continuous learning and adaptation.
Tropical forest landscapes are undergoing rapid transition. Rural development aspirations are ris... more Tropical forest landscapes are undergoing rapid transition. Rural development aspirations are rising, and land use change is contributing to deforestation, degradation, and biodiversity loss, which threaten the future of tropical forests. Conservation initiatives must deal with complex social, political, and ecological decisions involving trade-offs between the extent of protected areas and quality of conservation. In Cambodia, smallholders and industrial economic land concessions drive deforestation and forest degradation. Rural economic benefits have not kept pace with development aspirations and smallholders are gradually expanding agriculture into protected forests. We examine the drivers and effects of rural forest landscape transitions in Cambodia to identify trade-offs between conservation and development. Using historical trends analysis and information gathered through key informant interviews, we describe how local communities perceive social and ecological changes, and examine the implications of local development aspirations for conservation. We explore three scenarios for the future of conservation in Cambodia, each with different conservation and community development outcomes. We contend that conservation efforts should focus on strengthening governance to meet social and environmental requirements for sustainable forest landscapes. We suggest potential entry points for governance improvements, including working with local decision-makers and fostering collaboration between stakeholders. There is a need for realistic priority setting in contested tropical forest landscapes. Prosperous rural economies are a necessary but not sufficient condition for conservation.
forests should be process-driven, focused on the underlying social, ecological and political proc... more forests should be process-driven, focused on the underlying social, ecological and political processes that degrade landscapes. Interventions should also include negotiation among all actors influencing and competing for natural resource claims in forest landscapes. Criteria and indicators for forest landscape restoration should therefore help to improve the governance of forest landscapes. Criteria and indicators provide measures of the biophysical outcomes of degradation, in addition to processes, but these should be adapted to changing contexts and emerging challenges, and should rectify any pre-existing flawed change-logic. Restoration activities should synthesize, integrate, and build upon the rich history of pre-existing restoration guidelines, but should be adaptable in order to be applied effectively in the contexts of local landscapes. This project is facilitating a dialogue around the use of criteria and indicators to help solve the degradation challenge in the LMR. We will trial the use of the criteria and indicators generated through this research in the LMR to learn what works and what doesn't. This will provide an opportunity to build consensus around the ways in which restoration investments made by governments, civil society, and the private sector can influence sustainability. J. Brewer et al.
Sustainable Development Goals: Their Impacts on Forests and People, 2019
Key Points • There will be trade-offs between SDG 15 and other SDGs resulting from competition fo... more Key Points • There will be trade-offs between SDG 15 and other SDGs resulting from competition for land, but there are also synergies and opportunities. • The principal opportunity of SDG 15 is that it will be recognised and integrated, along with the other SDGs, in all developments. • The main risk is that short-term priorities and a 'business as usual' approach will undermine this opportunity for integration and synergy and SDG 15 will often be overlooked. • The scale, and complexity, of challenges for conserving life on land, versus the limited resources available, pose many challenges. • Greater cross-sectoral integration, not just sectoral policy reform, is essential to advancing SDG 15.
There is a global shift of forest management to local levels to better reconcile local livelihood... more There is a global shift of forest management to local levels to better reconcile local livelihoods and biodiversity conservation. We argue that achieving such outcomes will require embedding science in landscape-scale management systems. We show that science can contribute to local learning and adaptation within landscape contexts. Complexity and power relations have hampered scientists' efforts to engage with the people who use and influence the use of resources at landscape scales. Landscape approaches present an opportunity for science to help steer local management to address local contexts. We have conducted research at the interface of policy and management at landscape scales. More effort must go toward transdisciplinary approaches to co-generate knowledge and create "Communities of Commitment" for continual learning and adaptation amongst landscape-scale actors. Embedded science incorporating local knowledge and contexts and engaged in landscape scale development processes is necessary for improving decision and policy-making.
Interpreting discourses among implementers of what is termed a “landscape approach” enables us to... more Interpreting discourses among implementers of what is termed a “landscape approach” enables us to learn from their experience to improve conservation and development outcomes. We use Q-methodology to explore the perspectives of a group of experts in the landscape approach, both from academic and implementation fields, on what hinderances are in place to the realisation of achieving sustainable landscape management in Indonesia. The results show that, at a generic level, “corruption” and “lack of transparency and accountability” rank as the greatest constraints on landscape functionality. Biophysical factors, such as topography and climate change, rank as the least constraining factors. When participants considered a landscape with which they were most familiar, the results changed: the rapid change of regulations, limited local human capacity and inaccessible data on economic risks increased, while the inadequacy of democratic institutions, “overlapping laws” and “corruption” decreased. The difference indicates some fine-tuning of generic perceptions to the local context and may also reflect different views on what is achievable for landscape approach practitioners. Overall, approximately 55% of variance is accounted for by five discourse factors for each trial. Four overlapped and two discourses were discrete enough to merit different discourse labels. We labelled the discourses (1) social exclusionists, (2) state view, (3) community view, (4) integrationists, (5) democrats, and (6) neoliberals. Each discourse contains elements actionable at the landscape scale, as well as exogenous issues that originate at national and global scales. Actionable elements that could contribute to improving governance included trust building, clarified resource rights and responsibilities, and inclusive representation in management. The landscape sustainability discourses studied here suggests that landscape approach “learners” must focus on ways to remedy poor governance if they are to achieve sustainability and multi-functionality.
A B S T R A C T Academic inquiry into forest transitions has produced a rich body of literature e... more A B S T R A C T Academic inquiry into forest transitions has produced a rich body of literature examining the shift from net deforestation to net reforestation at multiple land use scales. However, researchers, practitioners, and policy analysts question the utility of current forest transition theory. Does it accurately describe and provide insight into strategies to influence patterns of forest change in countries where forest cover continues to decline? Forest transition theory has provided important insights into the 'necessary but not sufficient' conditions for countries shifting from net deforestation to net reforestation. To advance forest transition theory, scholars should recognize forests as complex and dynamic social-ecological systems and use analytical methods that accommodate that complexity. Transdisciplinary research that incorporates a broader range of qualitative and quantitative methods and tools is required. We analyzed the historical, social, and political factors influencing forest transition pathways in Cambodia. Cambodia exhibits similar economic preconditions to its neighbors, which have passed through a forest transition, yet deforestation rates remain high with no indication of slowing. We found that complex governance arrangements at multiple scales negatively influences Cambodia's forest cover and development trajectory. Attempts to nurture Cambodia's forest transition will require strengthening governance and institutions across all of the natural resource sectors. Further research that incorporates governance into forest transition frameworks is required to improve policy responses for post-transition forest outcomes.
Numerous intergovernmental conservation initiatives have failed to halt the loss and degradation ... more Numerous intergovernmental conservation initiatives have failed to halt the loss and degradation of forests. This paper explores the role of policy processes in developing and delivering desired future forest outcomes that meet both global environmental goals and the needs of local forest users. There is a clear disconnect between global commitments and local interventions to achieve forest outcomes. There is an incoher-ence in forest policy development at different spatial scales. Future forest governance needs to recognise the diversity of actors in the policy process and the complexity of local forest contexts. New actors in the policy process will include knowledge brokers and policy entrepreneurs who increasingly shape the policy discourse. There is also a need for policy durability and problem focused policy-learning pathways. Forest and allied sciences continue to be critical for delivering desired forest outcomes, and learning from the diversity of local contexts is critical to creating effective and coherent policies.
Integrated approaches to natural resource management are often undermined by fundamental governan... more Integrated approaches to natural resource management are often undermined by fundamental governance weaknesses. We studied governance of a forest landscape in East Lombok, Indonesia. Forest Management Units (Kesatuan Pengelolaan Hutan or KPH) are an institutional mechanism used in Indonesia for coordinating the management of competing sectors in forest landscapes, balancing the interests of government, business, and civil society. Previous reviews of KPHs indicate they are not delivering their potential benefits due to an uncertain legal mandate and inadequate resources. We utilized participatory methods with a broad range of stakeholders in East Lombok to examine how KPHs might improve institutional arrangements to better meet forest landscape goals. We find that KPHs are primarily limited by insufficient integration with other actors in the landscape. Thus, strengthened engagement with other institutions, as well as civil society, is required. Although new governance arrangements that allow for institutional collaboration and community engagement are needed in the long term, there are steps that the East Lombok KPH can take now. Coordinating institutional commitments and engaging civil society to reconcile power asymmetries and build consensus can help promote sustainable outcomes. Our study concludes that improved multi-level, polycentric governance arrangements between government, NGOs, the private sector, and civil society are required to achieve sustainable landscapes in Lombok. The lessons from Lombok can inform forest landscape governance improvements throughout Indonesia and the tropics.
Smallholder farmers and indigenous communities must cope with the opportunities and threats prese... more Smallholder farmers and indigenous communities must cope with the opportunities and threats presented by rapidly spreading estate crops in the frontier of the agricultural market economy. Smallholder communities are subject to considerable speculation by outsiders, yet large-scale agriculture presents tradeoffs that they must navigate. We initiated a study in Sintang, West Kalimantan in 2012 and have returned annually for the last four years, building the baselines for a longer-term landscape approach to reconciling conservation and development tradeoffs in situ. Here, the stakeholders are heterogeneous, yet the land cover of the landscape is on a trajectory towards homogenous mono-cropping systems, primarily either palm oil or rubber. In one village on the frontier of the agricultural market economy, natural forests remain managed by the indigenous and local community but economics further intrude on forest use decisions. Conservation values are declining and the future of the forest is uncertain. As such, the community is ultimately attracted to more economically attractive uses of the land for local development oil palm or rubber mono-crop farms. We identify poverty as a threat to community-managed conservation success in the face of economic pressures to convert forest to intensive agriculture. We provide evidence that lucrative alternatives will challenge community-managed forests when prosperity seems achievable. To alleviate this trend, we identify formalized traditional management and landscape governance solutions to nurture a more sustainable landscape transition.
Smallholder farmers and indigenous communities must cope with the opportunities and threats prese... more Smallholder farmers and indigenous communities must cope with the opportunities and threats presented by rapidly spreading estate crops in the frontier of the agricultural market economy. Smallholder communities are subject to considerable speculation by outsiders, yet large-scale agriculture presents tradeoffs that they must navigate. We initiated a study in Sintang, West Kalimantan in 2012 and have returned annually for the last four years, building the baselines for a longer-term landscape approach to reconciling conservation and development tradeoffs in situ. Here, the stakeholders are heterogeneous, yet the land cover of the landscape is on a trajectory towards homogenous mono-cropping systems, primarily either palm oil or rubber. In one village on the frontier of the agricultural market economy, natural forests remain managed by the indigenous and local community but economics further intrude on forest use decisions. Conservation values are declining and the future of the forest is uncertain. As such, the community is ultimately attracted to more economically attractive uses of the land for local development oil palm or rubber mono-crop farms. We identify poverty as a threat to community-managed conservation success in the face of economic pressures to convert forest to intensive agriculture. We provide evidence that lucrative alternatives will challenge community-managed forests when prosperity seems achievable. To alleviate this trend, we identify formalized traditional management and landscape governance solutions to nurture a more sustainable landscape transition.
Landscape approaches attempt to achieve balance amongst multiple goals over long time periods and... more Landscape approaches attempt to achieve balance amongst multiple goals over long time periods and to adapt to changing conditions. We review project reports and the literature on integrated landscape approaches, and found a lack of documented studies of their long-term effectiveness. The combination of multiple and potentially changing goals presents problems for the conventional measures of impact. We propose more critical use of theories of change and measures of process and progress to complement the conventional impact assessments. Theories of change make the links between project deliverables, outputs, outcomes, and impacts explicit, and allow a full exploration of the landscape context. Landscape approaches are long-term engagements, but short-term process metrics are needed to confirm that progress is being made in negotiation of goals, meaningful stakeholder engagement, existence of connections to policy processes, and effectiveness of governance. Long-term impact metrics are needed to assess progress on achieving landscapes that deliver multiple societal benefits, including conservation, production, and livelihood benefits. Generic criteria for process are proposed, but impact metrics will be highly situation specific and must be derived from an effective process and a credible theory of change.
Land tenure in Indonesia is regulated by a complex combination of traditional, formal and informa... more Land tenure in Indonesia is regulated by a complex combination of traditional, formal and informal arrangements. Legal ambiguity over land and natural resources has resulted in tenure insecurity, impact-ing livelihoods and perpetuating conflict. We reviewed land and forest laws in Indonesia and their effect on livelihoods and conflict and studied the impact of land tenure uncertainty in Rempek village on the island of Lombok, Nusa Tenggara Barat. In Rempek, conflict over land tenure and forest boundaries has occurred since 1984. We built a timeline of events from discussions with various stakeholders and obtained legal documents to support our analysis. The major driver of conflict is the disagreement over the forest boundaries between the Ministry of Forestry and the National Land Agency. This disagreement has escalated and introduced uncertainty, which negatively affects livelihoods in the area. Conflict resolution in Rempek requires a multi-stakeholder approach and an agreement between the Ministry of Forestry and the National Land Agency over the forest boundary and an explicit classification of land status in the conflict area. Our case study is relevant to recurrent disputes over land tenure in contemporary Indonesia. Agrarian conflict and tenure insecurity have stimulated political and social justice movements throughout the country. Recent reforms of land and forest tenure in Indonesia are opening up new pathways for local forest tenure arrangements in situations such as Rempek. Integrated landscape approaches are emerging in Indonesia and have elements that may contribute to resolving land tenure uncertainty. As land tenure security underpins livelihoods for most Indonesians, land authorities must demonstrate stronger coordination and pay more attention to realities on the ground to achieve political and legal progress on land tenure arrangements.
We assess the opportunities and threats posed by small and large-scale mining in Eastern Indonesi... more We assess the opportunities and threats posed by small and large-scale mining in Eastern Indonesia. Here, both activities coexist in one landscape: in the Bitung and North Minahasa Districts of North Sulawesi. Each is associated with different development pathways. Both scales of mining have been controversial and are criticized for their environmental and socio-economic impacts. Small-scale mining contributes more to the local economy encouraging local entrepreneurship but yields a lower total financial return. Large-scale mining provides better job security and safer working conditions for employees, but any benefits of capital transformation do not accrue locally. Policy should focus on the formalization of small-scale mining and pay closer attention to the impact of large-scale mining on local communities. The governance of both scales of mining would benefit from a ‘landscapes approach’ to negotiating conservation and development trade-offs.
Major advances in biology and ecology have sharpened our understanding of what the goals of biodi... more Major advances in biology and ecology have sharpened our understanding of what the goals of biodiversity conservation might be, but less progress has been made on how to achieve conservation in the complex, multi-sectoral world of human affairs. The failure to deliver conservation outcomes is especially severe in the rapidly changing landscapes of tropical low-income countries. We describe five techniques we have used to complement and strengthen long-term attempts to achieve conservation outcomes in the landscapes and seascapes of such regions; these are complex social-ecological systems shaped by interactions between biological, ecological and physical features mediated by the actions of people. Conservation outcomes occur as a result of human decisions and the governance arrangements that guide change. However, much conservation science in these countries is not rooted in a deep understanding of how these social-ecological systems work and what really determines the behaviour of the people whose decisions shape the future of landscapes. We describe five scientific practices that we have found to be effective in building relationships with actors in landscapes and influencing their behaviour in ways that reconcile conservation and development. We have used open-ended inductive enquiry, theories of change, simulation models, network analysis and multi-criteria analysis. These techniques are all widely known and well tested, but seldom figure in externally funded conservation projects. We have used these techniques to complement and strengthen existing interventions of international conservation agencies. These five techniques have proven effective in achieving deeper understanding of context, engagement with all stakeholders, negotiation of shared goals and continuous learning and adaptation.
This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative... more This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY
Context In recent years, landscape sustainability, the maintenance and improvement of biodiversit... more Context In recent years, landscape sustainability, the maintenance and improvement of biodiversity, ecosystem services, and human well-being in landscapes, has become a core objective of conservation initiatives. Yet efforts to promote sustainability often conflict with other landscape objectives. Globally, integrated landscape approaches have emerged as desirable processes for reconciling these conflicts. Integrated landscape approaches seek to foster improvements in landscape-scale governance to meet sustainability objectives. Objectives As scientific and political support for these new landscape approaches continues to advance internationally, there is a need to learn from the processes, constraints, and opportunities. We seek to enrich understandings of landscape approaches and their contributions to governance and sustainability through conserving biodiversity and maintaining ecosystem services. Methods Focusing on eight case studies at different stages of development in Indonesia, we explore how practitioners influence landscape sustainability
Network analysis has emerged as a useful practice for characterizing governance relationships and... more Network analysis has emerged as a useful practice for characterizing governance relationships and providing insights to the power relations that affect landscapes. We applied actor network analysis in two rural Cambodian landscapes to examine decision-making structures that affect conservation and development systems. Using questionnaire data, we analyze structural features of networks of cooperation and exchange to identify patterns of action and processes of change. We supplement our analysis with qualitative information gathered on power and social-ecological components of landscapes to enrich our understanding of natural resource systems. We find that power in Cambodia is concentrated in a central hierarchy, and external actors aiming to influence decision making would benefit from operating at multiple scales; there is no single leverage point for interventions. Cooperation between conservation and development actors is lacking; we observe that actors tend to cluster within similar groups. Cross-sectoral collaboration may be enhanced by knowledge brokers, but current actors lack resources to fulfil this role and require external support. Our study highlights the importance of nongovernment actors as conveners and facilitators to shape natural resource governance in the context of weak institutions. We advocate more institutionalized use of diagnostics, such as actor network analysis, for enhanced natural resource governance.
Seram is Indonesia's 8th largest island. It is central to the historic spice islands, once a hotb... more Seram is Indonesia's 8th largest island. It is central to the historic spice islands, once a hotbed for international trade of profitable tree-products, primarily clove and nutmeg. Recent increased rates of social and ecological change, including costly conflicts, present Seram with new challenges and opportunities for conservation and development. Using place-based transdisciplinary research methods, we diagnose the problems emerging in Seram. Engaging with actors across multiple scales and sectors, we explore drivers of change, social-ecological impacts, and institutional arrangements that might achieve improved inclusive and sustainable development outcomes. Traditional and formal governance arrangements require harmonizing to optimize the benefits and costs from large-scale investments arriving in Seram. Organizations wishing to achieve positive impact can more strategically engage with the broad range of actors to harmonize divergent visions for the future and confront the reality of incoming investments and infrastructure.
Major advances in biology and ecology have sharpened our understanding of what the goals of biodi... more Major advances in biology and ecology have sharpened our understanding of what the goals of biodiversity conservation might be, but less progress has been made on how to achieve conservation in the complex, multi-sectoral world of human affairs. The failure to deliver conservation outcomes is especially severe in the rapidly changing landscapes of tropical low-income countries. We describe five techniques we have used to complement and strengthen long-term attempts to achieve conservation outcomes in the landscapes and seascapes of such regions; these are complex social-ecological systems shaped by interactions between biological, ecological and physical features mediated by the actions of people. Conservation outcomes occur as a result of human decisions and the governance arrangements that guide change. However, much conservation science in these countries is not rooted in a deep understanding of how these social-ecological systems work and what really determines the behaviour of the people whose decisions shape the future of landscapes. We describe five scientific practices that we have found to be effective in building relationships with actors in landscapes and influencing their behaviour in ways that reconcile conservation and development. We have used open-ended inductive enquiry, theories of change, simulation models, network analysis and multi-criteria analysis. These techniques are all widely known and well tested, but seldom figure in externally funded conservation projects. We have used these techniques to complement and strengthen existing interventions of international conservation agencies. These five techniques have proven effective in achieving deeper understanding of context, engagement with all stake-holders, negotiation of shared goals and continuous learning and adaptation.
Tropical forest landscapes are undergoing rapid transition. Rural development aspirations are ris... more Tropical forest landscapes are undergoing rapid transition. Rural development aspirations are rising, and land use change is contributing to deforestation, degradation, and biodiversity loss, which threaten the future of tropical forests. Conservation initiatives must deal with complex social, political, and ecological decisions involving trade-offs between the extent of protected areas and quality of conservation. In Cambodia, smallholders and industrial economic land concessions drive deforestation and forest degradation. Rural economic benefits have not kept pace with development aspirations and smallholders are gradually expanding agriculture into protected forests. We examine the drivers and effects of rural forest landscape transitions in Cambodia to identify trade-offs between conservation and development. Using historical trends analysis and information gathered through key informant interviews, we describe how local communities perceive social and ecological changes, and examine the implications of local development aspirations for conservation. We explore three scenarios for the future of conservation in Cambodia, each with different conservation and community development outcomes. We contend that conservation efforts should focus on strengthening governance to meet social and environmental requirements for sustainable forest landscapes. We suggest potential entry points for governance improvements, including working with local decision-makers and fostering collaboration between stakeholders. There is a need for realistic priority setting in contested tropical forest landscapes. Prosperous rural economies are a necessary but not sufficient condition for conservation.
forests should be process-driven, focused on the underlying social, ecological and political proc... more forests should be process-driven, focused on the underlying social, ecological and political processes that degrade landscapes. Interventions should also include negotiation among all actors influencing and competing for natural resource claims in forest landscapes. Criteria and indicators for forest landscape restoration should therefore help to improve the governance of forest landscapes. Criteria and indicators provide measures of the biophysical outcomes of degradation, in addition to processes, but these should be adapted to changing contexts and emerging challenges, and should rectify any pre-existing flawed change-logic. Restoration activities should synthesize, integrate, and build upon the rich history of pre-existing restoration guidelines, but should be adaptable in order to be applied effectively in the contexts of local landscapes. This project is facilitating a dialogue around the use of criteria and indicators to help solve the degradation challenge in the LMR. We will trial the use of the criteria and indicators generated through this research in the LMR to learn what works and what doesn't. This will provide an opportunity to build consensus around the ways in which restoration investments made by governments, civil society, and the private sector can influence sustainability. J. Brewer et al.
Sustainable Development Goals: Their Impacts on Forests and People, 2019
Key Points • There will be trade-offs between SDG 15 and other SDGs resulting from competition fo... more Key Points • There will be trade-offs between SDG 15 and other SDGs resulting from competition for land, but there are also synergies and opportunities. • The principal opportunity of SDG 15 is that it will be recognised and integrated, along with the other SDGs, in all developments. • The main risk is that short-term priorities and a 'business as usual' approach will undermine this opportunity for integration and synergy and SDG 15 will often be overlooked. • The scale, and complexity, of challenges for conserving life on land, versus the limited resources available, pose many challenges. • Greater cross-sectoral integration, not just sectoral policy reform, is essential to advancing SDG 15.
There is a global shift of forest management to local levels to better reconcile local livelihood... more There is a global shift of forest management to local levels to better reconcile local livelihoods and biodiversity conservation. We argue that achieving such outcomes will require embedding science in landscape-scale management systems. We show that science can contribute to local learning and adaptation within landscape contexts. Complexity and power relations have hampered scientists' efforts to engage with the people who use and influence the use of resources at landscape scales. Landscape approaches present an opportunity for science to help steer local management to address local contexts. We have conducted research at the interface of policy and management at landscape scales. More effort must go toward transdisciplinary approaches to co-generate knowledge and create "Communities of Commitment" for continual learning and adaptation amongst landscape-scale actors. Embedded science incorporating local knowledge and contexts and engaged in landscape scale development processes is necessary for improving decision and policy-making.
Interpreting discourses among implementers of what is termed a “landscape approach” enables us to... more Interpreting discourses among implementers of what is termed a “landscape approach” enables us to learn from their experience to improve conservation and development outcomes. We use Q-methodology to explore the perspectives of a group of experts in the landscape approach, both from academic and implementation fields, on what hinderances are in place to the realisation of achieving sustainable landscape management in Indonesia. The results show that, at a generic level, “corruption” and “lack of transparency and accountability” rank as the greatest constraints on landscape functionality. Biophysical factors, such as topography and climate change, rank as the least constraining factors. When participants considered a landscape with which they were most familiar, the results changed: the rapid change of regulations, limited local human capacity and inaccessible data on economic risks increased, while the inadequacy of democratic institutions, “overlapping laws” and “corruption” decreased. The difference indicates some fine-tuning of generic perceptions to the local context and may also reflect different views on what is achievable for landscape approach practitioners. Overall, approximately 55% of variance is accounted for by five discourse factors for each trial. Four overlapped and two discourses were discrete enough to merit different discourse labels. We labelled the discourses (1) social exclusionists, (2) state view, (3) community view, (4) integrationists, (5) democrats, and (6) neoliberals. Each discourse contains elements actionable at the landscape scale, as well as exogenous issues that originate at national and global scales. Actionable elements that could contribute to improving governance included trust building, clarified resource rights and responsibilities, and inclusive representation in management. The landscape sustainability discourses studied here suggests that landscape approach “learners” must focus on ways to remedy poor governance if they are to achieve sustainability and multi-functionality.
A B S T R A C T Academic inquiry into forest transitions has produced a rich body of literature e... more A B S T R A C T Academic inquiry into forest transitions has produced a rich body of literature examining the shift from net deforestation to net reforestation at multiple land use scales. However, researchers, practitioners, and policy analysts question the utility of current forest transition theory. Does it accurately describe and provide insight into strategies to influence patterns of forest change in countries where forest cover continues to decline? Forest transition theory has provided important insights into the 'necessary but not sufficient' conditions for countries shifting from net deforestation to net reforestation. To advance forest transition theory, scholars should recognize forests as complex and dynamic social-ecological systems and use analytical methods that accommodate that complexity. Transdisciplinary research that incorporates a broader range of qualitative and quantitative methods and tools is required. We analyzed the historical, social, and political factors influencing forest transition pathways in Cambodia. Cambodia exhibits similar economic preconditions to its neighbors, which have passed through a forest transition, yet deforestation rates remain high with no indication of slowing. We found that complex governance arrangements at multiple scales negatively influences Cambodia's forest cover and development trajectory. Attempts to nurture Cambodia's forest transition will require strengthening governance and institutions across all of the natural resource sectors. Further research that incorporates governance into forest transition frameworks is required to improve policy responses for post-transition forest outcomes.
Numerous intergovernmental conservation initiatives have failed to halt the loss and degradation ... more Numerous intergovernmental conservation initiatives have failed to halt the loss and degradation of forests. This paper explores the role of policy processes in developing and delivering desired future forest outcomes that meet both global environmental goals and the needs of local forest users. There is a clear disconnect between global commitments and local interventions to achieve forest outcomes. There is an incoher-ence in forest policy development at different spatial scales. Future forest governance needs to recognise the diversity of actors in the policy process and the complexity of local forest contexts. New actors in the policy process will include knowledge brokers and policy entrepreneurs who increasingly shape the policy discourse. There is also a need for policy durability and problem focused policy-learning pathways. Forest and allied sciences continue to be critical for delivering desired forest outcomes, and learning from the diversity of local contexts is critical to creating effective and coherent policies.
Integrated approaches to natural resource management are often undermined by fundamental governan... more Integrated approaches to natural resource management are often undermined by fundamental governance weaknesses. We studied governance of a forest landscape in East Lombok, Indonesia. Forest Management Units (Kesatuan Pengelolaan Hutan or KPH) are an institutional mechanism used in Indonesia for coordinating the management of competing sectors in forest landscapes, balancing the interests of government, business, and civil society. Previous reviews of KPHs indicate they are not delivering their potential benefits due to an uncertain legal mandate and inadequate resources. We utilized participatory methods with a broad range of stakeholders in East Lombok to examine how KPHs might improve institutional arrangements to better meet forest landscape goals. We find that KPHs are primarily limited by insufficient integration with other actors in the landscape. Thus, strengthened engagement with other institutions, as well as civil society, is required. Although new governance arrangements that allow for institutional collaboration and community engagement are needed in the long term, there are steps that the East Lombok KPH can take now. Coordinating institutional commitments and engaging civil society to reconcile power asymmetries and build consensus can help promote sustainable outcomes. Our study concludes that improved multi-level, polycentric governance arrangements between government, NGOs, the private sector, and civil society are required to achieve sustainable landscapes in Lombok. The lessons from Lombok can inform forest landscape governance improvements throughout Indonesia and the tropics.
Smallholder farmers and indigenous communities must cope with the opportunities and threats prese... more Smallholder farmers and indigenous communities must cope with the opportunities and threats presented by rapidly spreading estate crops in the frontier of the agricultural market economy. Smallholder communities are subject to considerable speculation by outsiders, yet large-scale agriculture presents tradeoffs that they must navigate. We initiated a study in Sintang, West Kalimantan in 2012 and have returned annually for the last four years, building the baselines for a longer-term landscape approach to reconciling conservation and development tradeoffs in situ. Here, the stakeholders are heterogeneous, yet the land cover of the landscape is on a trajectory towards homogenous mono-cropping systems, primarily either palm oil or rubber. In one village on the frontier of the agricultural market economy, natural forests remain managed by the indigenous and local community but economics further intrude on forest use decisions. Conservation values are declining and the future of the forest is uncertain. As such, the community is ultimately attracted to more economically attractive uses of the land for local development oil palm or rubber mono-crop farms. We identify poverty as a threat to community-managed conservation success in the face of economic pressures to convert forest to intensive agriculture. We provide evidence that lucrative alternatives will challenge community-managed forests when prosperity seems achievable. To alleviate this trend, we identify formalized traditional management and landscape governance solutions to nurture a more sustainable landscape transition.
Smallholder farmers and indigenous communities must cope with the opportunities and threats prese... more Smallholder farmers and indigenous communities must cope with the opportunities and threats presented by rapidly spreading estate crops in the frontier of the agricultural market economy. Smallholder communities are subject to considerable speculation by outsiders, yet large-scale agriculture presents tradeoffs that they must navigate. We initiated a study in Sintang, West Kalimantan in 2012 and have returned annually for the last four years, building the baselines for a longer-term landscape approach to reconciling conservation and development tradeoffs in situ. Here, the stakeholders are heterogeneous, yet the land cover of the landscape is on a trajectory towards homogenous mono-cropping systems, primarily either palm oil or rubber. In one village on the frontier of the agricultural market economy, natural forests remain managed by the indigenous and local community but economics further intrude on forest use decisions. Conservation values are declining and the future of the forest is uncertain. As such, the community is ultimately attracted to more economically attractive uses of the land for local development oil palm or rubber mono-crop farms. We identify poverty as a threat to community-managed conservation success in the face of economic pressures to convert forest to intensive agriculture. We provide evidence that lucrative alternatives will challenge community-managed forests when prosperity seems achievable. To alleviate this trend, we identify formalized traditional management and landscape governance solutions to nurture a more sustainable landscape transition.
Landscape approaches attempt to achieve balance amongst multiple goals over long time periods and... more Landscape approaches attempt to achieve balance amongst multiple goals over long time periods and to adapt to changing conditions. We review project reports and the literature on integrated landscape approaches, and found a lack of documented studies of their long-term effectiveness. The combination of multiple and potentially changing goals presents problems for the conventional measures of impact. We propose more critical use of theories of change and measures of process and progress to complement the conventional impact assessments. Theories of change make the links between project deliverables, outputs, outcomes, and impacts explicit, and allow a full exploration of the landscape context. Landscape approaches are long-term engagements, but short-term process metrics are needed to confirm that progress is being made in negotiation of goals, meaningful stakeholder engagement, existence of connections to policy processes, and effectiveness of governance. Long-term impact metrics are needed to assess progress on achieving landscapes that deliver multiple societal benefits, including conservation, production, and livelihood benefits. Generic criteria for process are proposed, but impact metrics will be highly situation specific and must be derived from an effective process and a credible theory of change.
Land tenure in Indonesia is regulated by a complex combination of traditional, formal and informa... more Land tenure in Indonesia is regulated by a complex combination of traditional, formal and informal arrangements. Legal ambiguity over land and natural resources has resulted in tenure insecurity, impact-ing livelihoods and perpetuating conflict. We reviewed land and forest laws in Indonesia and their effect on livelihoods and conflict and studied the impact of land tenure uncertainty in Rempek village on the island of Lombok, Nusa Tenggara Barat. In Rempek, conflict over land tenure and forest boundaries has occurred since 1984. We built a timeline of events from discussions with various stakeholders and obtained legal documents to support our analysis. The major driver of conflict is the disagreement over the forest boundaries between the Ministry of Forestry and the National Land Agency. This disagreement has escalated and introduced uncertainty, which negatively affects livelihoods in the area. Conflict resolution in Rempek requires a multi-stakeholder approach and an agreement between the Ministry of Forestry and the National Land Agency over the forest boundary and an explicit classification of land status in the conflict area. Our case study is relevant to recurrent disputes over land tenure in contemporary Indonesia. Agrarian conflict and tenure insecurity have stimulated political and social justice movements throughout the country. Recent reforms of land and forest tenure in Indonesia are opening up new pathways for local forest tenure arrangements in situations such as Rempek. Integrated landscape approaches are emerging in Indonesia and have elements that may contribute to resolving land tenure uncertainty. As land tenure security underpins livelihoods for most Indonesians, land authorities must demonstrate stronger coordination and pay more attention to realities on the ground to achieve political and legal progress on land tenure arrangements.
We assess the opportunities and threats posed by small and large-scale mining in Eastern Indonesi... more We assess the opportunities and threats posed by small and large-scale mining in Eastern Indonesia. Here, both activities coexist in one landscape: in the Bitung and North Minahasa Districts of North Sulawesi. Each is associated with different development pathways. Both scales of mining have been controversial and are criticized for their environmental and socio-economic impacts. Small-scale mining contributes more to the local economy encouraging local entrepreneurship but yields a lower total financial return. Large-scale mining provides better job security and safer working conditions for employees, but any benefits of capital transformation do not accrue locally. Policy should focus on the formalization of small-scale mining and pay closer attention to the impact of large-scale mining on local communities. The governance of both scales of mining would benefit from a ‘landscapes approach’ to negotiating conservation and development trade-offs.
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Papers by James Langston
Here, both activities coexist in one landscape: in the Bitung and North Minahasa Districts of North
Sulawesi. Each is associated with different development pathways. Both scales of mining have been
controversial and are criticized for their environmental and socio-economic impacts. Small-scale mining
contributes more to the local economy encouraging local entrepreneurship but yields a lower total
financial return. Large-scale mining provides better job security and safer working conditions for
employees, but any benefits of capital transformation do not accrue locally. Policy should focus on the
formalization of small-scale mining and pay closer attention to the impact of large-scale mining on local
communities. The governance of both scales of mining would benefit from a ‘landscapes approach’ to
negotiating conservation and development trade-offs.
Here, both activities coexist in one landscape: in the Bitung and North Minahasa Districts of North
Sulawesi. Each is associated with different development pathways. Both scales of mining have been
controversial and are criticized for their environmental and socio-economic impacts. Small-scale mining
contributes more to the local economy encouraging local entrepreneurship but yields a lower total
financial return. Large-scale mining provides better job security and safer working conditions for
employees, but any benefits of capital transformation do not accrue locally. Policy should focus on the
formalization of small-scale mining and pay closer attention to the impact of large-scale mining on local
communities. The governance of both scales of mining would benefit from a ‘landscapes approach’ to
negotiating conservation and development trade-offs.