International Relations

This case study was developed as part of a collaborative learning project called "Engaging the Business Community as a New Peacebuilding Actor" undertaken by CDA Collaborative Learning Projects (CDA), Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO), and the Africa Centre for Dispute Settlement of the University of Stellenbosch (ACDS). Case studies produced for this project an intentional effort by a business actor or set of actors to affect the dynamics of conflict and peace that has discernable outcomes in relation to those dynamics. Cases should not be considered a final product of the project. Individual case studies allow for the identification of cross-cutting issues and themes across a range of situations. Each case represents the views and perspectives of a variety of people at the time when it was written, and do not represent a final product of the project. While case studies may be cited, they remain working documents of a collaborative learning effort. Broad generalizations about the project's findings cannot be made from a single case study. 1 Moro is a term used to refer to Muslims from Mindanao and Palawan belonging to any of the 13 ethno-linguistic groups. For more see: Torres 2014:92. Definition: Key Driving Factor of Conflict (KDF) A key driving factor of conflict (KDF) is a term used to described a factor of conflict without which the conflict would not exist or would look entirely different.

Previous studies indicate that interracial interactions frequently have negative outcomes but have typically focused on social contexts. The current studies examined the effect of manipulating interaction context. In Study 1, Black and White participants worked together with instructions that created either a social focus or a task focus. With a task focus, interracial pairs were more consistently synchronized, Black participants showed less executive function depletion, and White participants generally showed reduced implicit bias. Follow-up studies suggested that prejudice concerns help explain these findings: White participants reported fewer concerns about appearing prejudiced when they imagined an interracial interaction with a task focus rather than a social focus (Study 2a), and Black participants reported less vigilance against prejudice in an imagined interracial interaction with a task focus rather than a social focus (Study 2b). Taken together, these studies illustrate the importance of interaction context for the experiences of both Blacks and Whites.

Although researchers have long advocated taking an intersectional approach in order to better understand how race, gender, and other social identities influence social experiences, this approach is only beginning to take hold in the interracial interaction literature. This paper describes the importance of considering gender (as well as other social identities, such as sexual orientation) in addition to race in the context of Black/White interracial interactions in the United States. The role of prior experience is discussed (i.e., encounters with prejudice at the intersection of race and gender, gender differences in the content of racial stereotypes, and the sometimes-conflicting messages of racial and gender socialization). The ways in which gender and racial identities interact with situational aspects of interracial interactions are also considered. Finally, the current representation of gender in the interracial interaction literature is reviewed, and recommendations for future research are provided, including techniques for recruiting racial minority participants.

This meta-analysis examined over 40 years of research on interracial interactions by exploring 4 types of outcomes: explicit attitudes toward interaction partners, participants’ self-reports of their own emotional state, nonverbal or observed behavior, and objective measures of performance. Data were collected from 108 samples (N = 12,463) comparing dyadic interracial and same-race interactions, predominantly featuring Black and White Americans. Effect sizes were small: Participants in same-race dyads tended to express marginally more positive attitudes about their partners (r = .07), reported feeling less negative affect (r = .10), showed more friendly nonverbal behavior (r = .09), and scored higher on performance measures (r = .07) than those in interracial dyads. Effect sizes also showed substantial heterogeneity, and further analyses indicated that intersectional, contextual, and relational factors moderated these outcomes. For example, when members of a dyad were the same sex, differences between interracial and same-race dyads in negative affect were reduced. Structured interactions led to more egalitarian performance outcomes than did free-form interactions, but the effects of interaction structure on nonverbal behavior depended on participant gender. Furthermore, benefits of intergroup contact were apparent: Differences in emotional state across dyadic racial composition disappeared in longer term interactions, and racial minorities, who often have greater experience with intergroup contact, experienced less negative affect in interracial interactions than did majority group members. Finally, there was a significant historical trend toward more egalitarian outcomes across dyadic racial composition for explicit attitudes and for nonverbal behavior; however, participants’ emotional responses and performance have remained consistent.

Outgroup members (e.g., individuals whose racial identity differs from perceivers') are stigmatized in Eastern and Western cultures. However, it remains an open question how specific cultural influences affect stigmatization. In this study, we assessed whether cultural learning (i.e., social information acquired from the people in one's environment) associated with Chinese individuals' relocation to the United States differentiated the response to multiple outgroups. Two types of cultural learning predict diverging responses to outgroups -awareness of stereotypes about different racial outgroups is associated with increased negative affect and cognitive control toward the stereotyped outgroup.

Previous studies indicate that interracial interactions frequently have negative outcomes but have typically focused on social contexts. The current studies examined the effect of manipulating interaction context. In Study 1, Black and White participants worked together with instructions that created either a social focus or a task focus. With a task focus, interracial pairs were more consistently synchronized, Black participants showed less executive function depletion, and White participants generally showed reduced implicit bias. Follow-up studies suggested that prejudice concerns help explain these findings: White participants reported fewer concerns about appearing prejudiced when they imagined an interracial interaction with a task focus rather than a social focus (Study 2a), and Black participants reported less vigilance against prejudice in an imagined interracial interaction with a task focus rather than a social focus (Study 2b). Taken together, these studies illustrate th...

This meta-analysis examined over 40 years of research on interracial interactions by exploring 4 types of outcomes: explicit attitudes toward interaction partners, participants' self-reports of their own emotional state, nonverbal or observed behavior, and objective measures of performance. Data were collected from 108 samples (N ϭ 12,463) comparing dyadic interracial and same-race interactions, predominantly featuring Black and White Americans. Effect sizes were small: Participants in same-race dyads tended to express marginally more positive attitudes about their partners (r ϭ .07), reported feeling less negative affect (r ϭ .10), showed more friendly nonverbal behavior (r ϭ .09), and scored higher on performance measures (r ϭ .07) than those in interracial dyads. Effect sizes also showed substantial heterogeneity, and further analyses indicated that intersectional, contextual, and relational factors moderated these outcomes. For example, when members of a dyad were the same sex, differences between interracial and same-race dyads in negative affect were reduced. Structured interactions led to more egalitarian performance outcomes than did free-form interactions, but the effects of interaction structure on nonverbal behavior depended on participant gender. Furthermore, benefits of intergroup contact were apparent: Differences in emotional state across dyadic racial composition disappeared in longer term interactions, and racial minorities, who often have greater experience with intergroup contact, experienced less negative affect in interracial interactions than did majority group members. Finally, there was a significant historical trend toward more egalitarian outcomes across dyadic racial composition for explicit attitudes and for nonverbal behavior; however, participants' emotional responses and performance have remained consistent.

High-status groups endorse zero-sum beliefs (ZSBs) more than low-status groups. • High-status groups' ZSBs increase when they perceive increasing bias. • ZSBs correspond with efforts to improve high-status groups' outcomes. • ZSBs correspond with efforts to worsen low-status groups' outcomes.

Stereotypes often guide interracial interactions-both the stereotypes we hold about others, and the stereotypes we believe others hold about us (i.e., meta-stereotypes). In Black-White interactions, the stereotype that Whites are prejudiced is one of the most salient, but does this stereotype vary by gender? White women tend to express more positive racial attitudes than White men, and stereotypes of Whites overlap more with stereotypes about men than with stereotypes about women. Thus, we hypothesized that both prejudice-related meta-stereotypes and stereotypes differ by gender. In Study 1, Whites reported that White men are seen as more prejudiced than White women. Studies 2a and 2b measured Blacks' perspectives, finding that Blacks also reported that White men are seen as more prejudiced than White women. Together, these findings highlight the importance of considering gender to develop a more nuanced understanding of racerelated stereotypes, meta-stereotypes, and interracial interactions.

Across six studies, we demonstrate that exposure to biracial individuals significantly reduces endorsement of colorblindness as a racial ideology among White individuals. Real-world exposure to biracial individuals predicts lower levels of colorblindness compared to White and Black exposure (Study 1). Brief manipulated exposure to images of biracial faces reduces colorblindness compared to exposure to White faces, Black faces, a set of diverse monoracial faces, or abstract images (Studies 2-5). Additionally, these effects occur only when a biracial label is paired with the face rather than resulting from the novelty of the mixed-race faces themselves (Study 4). Finally, we show that the shift in White participants’ colorblindness attitudes is driven by social tuning, based on participants’ expectations that biracial individuals are lower in colorblindness than monoracial individuals (Studies 5-6). These studies suggest that the multiracial population’s increasing size and visibility...

Today, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) is confronted by the challenge of Iran’s nuclear program, which in recent decades has placed unprecedented levels of stress on the treaty. It raises the important question of whether or to what degree Iran is actually complying with its international legal obligations under the NPT and, therefore, what the future of the NPT and the nonproliferation regime may be if Iran continues along its current path. However, there are four principal challenges in determining whether a state is in violation of the NPT. First, the treaty is silent on who determines compliance; second, it is not clear how compliance should be verified; third, there is no distinction made between the sensitive and nonsensitive elements of the nuclear fuel cycle; and fourth, there is no discus- sion of enforcement. With these challenges in mind, and by relying on International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) reports and UN Security Council resolutions, this paper finds that while Iran cannot be judged at this time to be in violation of the letter of the NPT, it may already be in violation of the spirit of the treaty. Looking forward, a deal could be proposed wherein the Security Council drops its sanctions in exchange for Iran’s ratification of the Additional Protocol. More broadly, there are innovative ways to strengthen the NPT, includ- ing by giving the Security Council an extended mandate with respect to states that violate their IAEA safeguards agreements. Ultimately, the NPT ideally would be stronger, less ambiguous, and more exacting on its signatories to not develop a nuclear weapons capabil- ity. In that vein, if the Iranian situation continues unabated, it may strain the treaty to its breaking point.

Over time, the United States has used a full spectrum of legal vehicles available at its disposal to advance its arms control agenda. This paper will examine four principal forms of legal agreement that have been used by the United States in arms control: the formal treaty, the executive agreement, the non-legally binding pledge, and the unilateral action. The paper will submit a short case study on each vehicle, and then will apply the lessons of these four models to the recent U.S. experience with the New START arms control treaty. Finally, this paper will extract the central lesson from the exercise: that by and large, domestic political circumstances drive the legal form of an arms control agreement, not vice versa, and that this flexibility in legal approach has been sufficient to overcome nearly all domestic political circumstances and continue making progress on arms control.