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Foss Leach

Te Papa Museum, Archaeozoology Laboratory, Emeritus

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Foss Leach CNZM is a New Zealand archaeologist and a pioneer of integrated regional research programmes, conservation of archaeological materials, zooarchaeology, and broader aspects of archaeological science. He has been a strong advocate of collaborative cross-disciplinary research. Leach has served as an officer and committee member of numerous New Zealand and international organisations concerned with archaeology and cultural heritage management, and has held honorary fellowships in various institutions.

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Mike Burtenshaw

Atholl Anderson

The Australian National University

East China Institute of Technology

University of Canterbury/Te Whare Wānanga o Waitaha

University of Otago

California State Polytechnic University at Pomona

Hans-Dieter Bader

Thegn Ladefoged

The University of Auckland

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Books by Foss Leach

Clark, G. Leach,B.F. and O’Conner, S. (eds) 2008. Islands of Inquiry: Colonisation, seafaring and the archaeology of maritime landscapes. Papers in honour of Atholl Anderson. Terra Australis 29.

'Aye,' said the Captain, reverentially; 'it's a almighty element. There's wonders in the deep, my... more 'Aye,' said the Captain, reverentially; 'it's a almighty element. There's wonders in the deep, my pretty. Think on it when the winds is roaring and the waves is rowling. Think on it when the stormy nights is so pitch dark,' said the Captain, solemnly holding up his hook, 'as you can't see your hand afore you, excepting when the wiwid lightning reweals the same; and when you drive, drive, drive through the storm and dark, as if you was a driving, head on, to the world without end,'

Leach, B.F. 2016. The Dauntless Two of Martinborough. Privately published by Foss Leach New Place, 9 Maple Lane, Cottage Grove, Martinborough, 5711, New Zealand.

Although this volume is primarily a boy’s adventure story with a target readership of children an... more Although this volume is primarily a boy’s adventure story with a target readership of children and younger teenagers, the themes covered are relevant to adults with an interest in the social history of New Zealand during the two decades following World War 2. For example, much has been written by adults during and following the preparation of the Mazengarb Report on juvenile delinquency in 1954, but very little is recorded from the perspective of youngsters who lived through that tumult.

The setting of the book is 1953-1955 in the small rural town of Martinborough. The narrator is a 13 year old boy using the vernacular of the times. Although cast as fiction, it is based on real events. Each Chapter is a separate short story with no thematic or chronological connection with any other.

Some stories describe the wilder adventures of the Dauntless Two - trying to blow up the town rubbish dump, planning to rob a bank, building a human glider, making an underground fort, and diving for gold in the bottom of a local river. Others concern family activities - fishing at Kiriwai and in Lake Wairapapa, pig hunting, happy times in the family possom bach on the edge of the Rimutaka forest. A range of interesting characters appear, from eccentric old men to a much respected school teacher, the local police man, doctor and chemist. The Saturday visit to the flicks is a regular feature of life in the small rural town before television, and provides inspiration for some of the adventures, while the visit of a Circus is a one-off high light.

Leach, B.F. Fishing in Pre-European New Zealand. 2006. New Zealand Journal of Archaeology Special Publication. 359 pp.

Intoh,M. and Leach, B.F. 1985. Archaeological investigations in the Yap Islands. British Archaeological Reports S277. 200 pp.

by Foss Leach and M. Intoh

Leach,B.F. Snook,J., Gray,J., Thomas,H. Leach, P. and Watson, M. 2010. Every day is a holiday in New Zealand. The centennial history of James and Catherine Leach Immigrants from Bingley Yorkshire 1909. Privately published by the Leach family. 137 pp.

Leach, B.F. and Davidson, J.M. 2008. The Archaeology of Taumako: a Polynesian Outlier in the Eastern Solomon Islands. Monograph. New Zealand Journal of Archaeology Special Publication. 691 pp.

This lavishly illustrated volume describes the results of archaeological research carried out on ... more This lavishly illustrated volume describes the results of archaeological research carried out on the Polynesian Outlier of Taumako in the Santa Cruz Group (Temotu Province) of Solomon Islands in 1977–1978. The project was part of a wider interdisciplinary investigation of the Southeast Solomon and Santa Cruz Islands.The authors describe a 3,000-year sequence of continuity and change on Taumako, based on four excavations. Taumako is the home of the famous Tepuke sailing canoe and the excavations revealed evidence of a high level of interaction with other Pacific communities, both near and far. Taumako was also the scene of early contact with European voyagers. The authors draw on the accounts from Quiros’ voyage in AD 1606 to sketch a picture of the island society at that time. A few archaeological items of European material culture reflect this early contact. The excavation of a burial mound provide both abundant evidence of the people themselves during the last millennium and a rich inventory of shell ornaments, which show strong parallels with Santa Cruz collections in museums around the world. The highly uneven distribution of these ornaments, found with some women and babies as well as men, suggests that status in this small-scale society was inherited. Several studies of the biological affinities of the people show that this community was the result of multiple contacts with a variety of different people in the immediate area and further afield, as is also shown by the material culture. A surprising finding was the high level of yaws in the population, but the authors show that this is not so remarkable when historical evidence of yaws in other parts of Solomon Islands is considered. Locally made pottery, shell fishhooks and imported obsidian are present only in the early part of the sequence. The pottery is essentially plain but includes a few vessels with Lapita decoration, also made locally. High quality chert from Taumako has been found in earlier Lapita sites in Santa Cruz and the Reef Islands. Continuity throughout the Taumako sequence is seen in shell adzes, Trochus shell rings, shell ‘money’ beads and the large Tridacna shell breast plates, typical of Santa Cruz in early historic times but previously known only ethnographically. Impressions of loom woven textiles on some of these shell breast plates provide the first archaeological evidence of the loom in the Pacific. Faunal studies, particularly of molluscs, show interesting differences between two faunal-rich sites and an extraordinary change through time in one of them from exploitation of gastropods to bivalves, particularly one very small bivalve species, Paphies (Atactodea) striata. Supporting information is presented in 18 specialist appendices. Detailed metrical data are included in an attached CD.

Leach, B.F. Fishing in Pre-European New Zealand. 2006. Archaeofauna 15

ABSTRACT: New Zealand was first discovered less than one thousand years ago by people from Easter... more ABSTRACT: New Zealand was first discovered less than one thousand years ago by people from Eastern Polynesia, who were ancestors of the present New Zealand Ma¯ori. They were the descendants of people with a long maritime tradition, who took their first steps into the Oceanic world east of New Guinea some 35,000 years ago. By the time these people had settled the far flung islands of the Pacific and reached New Zealand they possessed advanced fishing technology and deep knowledge of fish habits and ecology. This paper reviews the current state of knowledge of the archaeozoology of fishing in prehistoric New Zealand. It begins with preliminary sections describing the tropical Pacific background to New Zealand archaeology, and the methodologies which are used in New Zealand relating to fishing and the analysis of fish remains. This is followed by a description of the New Zealand fishery, and the species which were caught by prehistoric Ma¯ori. A database in the Museum of New Zealand contains information on fish remains from 126 archaeological sites covering all regions and periods in New Zealand (total MNI=40,400). Although about 750 species are present in New Zealand waters, only about 35 occur in prehistoric catches, and of these only 6 occur with abundances over 7%. These are: barracouta, Thyrsites atun (Gempylidae); blue cod, Parapercis colias (Mugiloididae); snapper, Pagrus auratus (Sparidae); wrasses (Labridae); red cod, Pseudophycis bachus (Moridae); and greenbone, Odax pullus (Odacidae). Together these make up 85% of all fishes caught in prehistoric times. The technology and material culture associated with these prehistoric catches are described, tracing the knowledge of cordage and knots, netting and fish hooks, canoe design, fish preservation and cooking methods. Special attention is given to the functional attributes of the rotating hook, so common throughout Oceania. The economic basis of prehistoric Ma¯ori society varied markedly in New Zealand from horticultural people in the north to hunter-gatherers in the south. Regionalism in fish catches is examined, and although a biogeographical base to this can be identified, there is also a strong cultural expression over the top of it. A large section of the paper is concerned with changes in fish catches over archaeological time. Two aspects are considered –changes in relative abundance of fish types over time, and changes in size-frequency diagrams over time. It is found that New Zealand-wide trends have very little meaning, but that changes relating to the activities of essentially individual prehistoric communities show significant trends. These changes are presented after first considering climate change over the last 1,000 years and, in particular, the way that this affected surface sea water temperatures. There is increasing evidence that the so-called Little Ice Age was important in New Zealand, resulting in dramatic changes in fish recruitment rates, and in one case the extinction of a spawning population. This was the genetically distinctive snapper population of Tasman Bay in the northern South Island. This is reflected in the absence of snapper in prehistoric catches in this area during the period of the Little Ice Age. Of special interest is the finding that sustained predation in many parts of New Zealand resulted in increasing fish size over archaeological time. This is attributed to the widespread Polynesian custom of taking all fish, no matter how small, putting pressure on juveniles to increase their growth rate. This conclusion is supported by experimental research on preferential targeting of fish of different sizes, resulting in rapid evolution through genetic selection. The role of fish in early New Zealand diet is then considered, bearing in mind fundamental aspects of human nutritional needs. It is shown that protein was effectively super-abundant in prehistoric New Zealand, largely because of the wealth of marine foods available, and that the more important consideration was access to fat and/or carbohydrate foods. Isotope research on human bone collagen shows that food deriving from the marine environment varied from about 11% for inland people to 61% for some coastal peoples. The final part of the paper is concerned with modelling human predation and its effect on marine environments. It is suggested that archaeologists need to be a great deal more careful in this field in future and work from the bottom up, not the top down. In particular, optimal foraging theory is criticised as naive and not well founded in evidence in the case of marine food gathering. The widespread custom of `slash and burn and fallow’ has a counterpart in marine harvesting whereby people take all specimens down to very small size, depleting an area of its biomass, and then move away to a new settlement, leaving the former area to recover over long periods. There is considerable evidence for such a pattern of exploitation of the marine environment. This is a conservation strategy not often considered by archaeologists or in modern fisheries management. Prehistoric Ma¯ori fishermen in New Zealand were clearly extremely knowledgeable about all aspects of the New Zealand fishery. The abundance of fish available meant that all necessary food could be obtained The role of fish in early New Zealand diet is then considered, bearing in mind fundamental aspects of human nutritional needs. It is shown that protein was effectively super-abundant in prehistoric New Zealand, largely because of the wealth of marine foods available, and that the more important consideration was access to fat and/or carbohydrate foods. Isotope research on human bone collagen shows that food deriving from the marine environment varied from about 11% for inland people to 61% for some coastal peoples. The final part of the paper is concerned with modelling human predation and its effect on marine environments. It is suggested that archaeologists need to be a great deal more careful in this field in future and work from the bottom up, not the top down. In particular, optimal foraging theory is criticised as naive and not well founded in evidence in the case of marine food gathering. The widespread custom of `slash and burn and fallow’ has a counterpart in marine harvesting whereby people take all specimens down to very small size, depleting an area of its biomass, and then move away to a new settlement, leaving the former area to recover over long periods. There is considerable evidence for such a pattern of exploitation of the marine environment. This is a conservation strategy not often considered by archaeologists or in modern fisheries management. Prehistoric Ma¯ori fishermen in New Zealand were clearly extremely knowledgeable about all aspects of the New Zealand fishery. The abundance of fish available meant that all necessary food could be obtained in shallow waters, more than 80% being caught less than 100 metres from the shore.

Leach, B.F. 2003. Depletion and Loss of the Customary Fishery of Ngati Hinewaka: 130 years of Struggle to Protect a Resource Guaranteed under Article Two of the Treaty of Waitangi. Report presented to the Waitangi Tribunal, Document Wai-863-#A71.

Leach, B.F. 1997. A guide to the identification of fish remains from New Zealand archaeological sites. New Zealand Journal of Archaeology Special Publication. 129 pp.

Approximately 1,000 species of fish are found in New Zealand waters, but of these only a very sma... more Approximately 1,000 species of fish are found in New Zealand waters, but of these only a very small number were exploited to any significant degree by pre-European Ma¯ori. Some archaeological sites have only one or two fish types present, many have about ten, and a few have as many as 20 types. In all, only about 50 types are found in archaeological sites, and these are largely inshore fish which live amongst rocky weedy areas, or in open beaches, or rough ground slightly offshore. This makes the task of identifying bones much easier. This volume is an anatomical atlas of five cranial bones of 45 of the most commonly caught species in pre-Eureopean New Zealand (Dentary, Premaxilla, Articular, Maxilla, and Quadrate), together with a number of special highly distinctive bones.

Leach, B.F. and Boocock, A. 1993. Prehistoric Fish Catches in New Zealand. British Archaeological Reports, International Series 584. 303 pp.

Festchrift 1989. Saying So Doesn’t Make it So: Papers in Honour of B.Foss Leach. Sutton, D.G. (ed.). New Zealand Archaeological Association Monograph 17. 303 pp.

Leach, B.F. and Ward, G.K. 1981. Archaeology on Kapingamarangi Atoll: a Polynesian outlier in the Eastern Caroline Islands. 150 pp. Privately published by B.F. Leach.

Leach, B.F. and Leach,H.M. (eds) 1979. Prehistoric Man in Palliser Bay. National Museum of New Zealand Bulletin 21. 272 pp.

by Foss Leach and Helen Leach

Papers by Foss Leach

Leach, B.F., Davidson, J.M., Burtenshaw, M. and T. Tomlin. 2024. Experimental kumara gardens at Whatarangi, Palliser Bay and Robin Hood Bay, Marlborough, New Zealand: Results after 23 years. Journal of Pacific Archaeology 14(1): 1-25.

Two experimental gardens of kūmara (Ipomoea batatas), one on each side of Cook Strait, New Zealan... more Two experimental gardens of kūmara (Ipomoea batatas), one on each side of Cook Strait, New Zealand, were planted and harvested without fertiliser for a period of 14 and 23 years respectively. The mean annual yield for the garden on the north side of Cook Strait was 10.2 tonne/ha and 7.5 tonne/ha for the southern garden. More than 90% of tubers harvested weighed less than 100 g. Yields fluctuated considerably, but did not decline over time. We monitored rainfall, sunshine hours, air and soil temperatures, and several soil chemical characteristics. Some correlations with yield were found, but do not account for the high degree of variation in annual yield. Between plant variation in yield was a similar order of magnitude as annual variation. Attention to individual plants during the growing season may contribute to yield variation. No correlation was found between seed size and individual plant yield. Several soil nutrients declined significantly over time. Conversely, phosphorus consistently rises over time in both gardens, starting about 10mg/L and rising to c.50 mg/L after 12 years. This is attributed to vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) around the root system of kūmara. A minor sub-project with taro, Colocasia esculenta, shows success on both sides of Cook Strait. Results from the research were modelled to estimate pre-European population size in Palliser Bay.

Leach, B.F., Davidson, J.M. and Horwood, L.M. 1997. Prehistoric Ma¯ori Fishermen at Kokohuia, Hokianga Harbour, Northland, New Zealand. Man and Culture in Oceania 13: 99–116.

Leach, B.F. and H.M. Leach. 1969. Archaeology in the Wairarapa. Privately circulated booklet, Anthropology Department, University of Otago.

Leach , B.F., Davidson, J.M., Fraser, K., Quinn , C. and J. Morrison. 1997. Isotope Analysis and Dietary Reconstruction of two Individuals from an Archaeological Site at Tina, Southern New Caledonia. Technical Report 25 Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa.

Three isotopes were determined on collagen extracts from human femoral bones of two individuals (... more Three isotopes were determined on collagen extracts from human femoral bones of two individuals (male and female) from an archaeological site at Tina, southeastern Grande Terre, New Caledonia, dating to c. 850 BP. Diagenetic change was ruled out after both C/N ratios and amino acid analysis proved satisfactory. The  13 C signatures of both individuals suggest that dietary carbon was obtained from a mixture of both marine and terrestrial sources. The  15 N signature was strongly terrestrial, and the  34 S leans more towards marine or C4 plants. Although C4 plants are dominant in New Caledonian grasslands today, these species are post-European. Since large land mammals are only recent introductions, any indirect contribution from C4 plants (such as protein from sugar cane bargasse) to the diet of prehistoric people is ruled out. Multiple analyses for all isotopes were carried out, interspersed with a bone standard, and final results showed variable coefficients of variation ( 13 C c. 0.6%,  15 N c. 4%, and  34 S c.5%). A stochastic simulation model was used to estimate the amounts of five main components of prehistoric diet of the two individuals. Although the estimated amounts of each component were very similar for each, the results for the male showed a much wider range of variation than for the female. Modern ethnographic research in the Solomon islands showed similar gender based differentiation in diet. The estimated macronutrient ratio (MNR) of the two Tina individuals was typical of tropical Pacific horticultural societies at c. 22:14: 64.

Leach, B.F. and J.M. Davidson. 1999. Analysis of Faunal Remains from the Lapita Site 13A, New Caledonia.Technical Report 33 Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa.

Leach, B.F. 2024. Analysis of Fish Bones from a Site at Tumbledown Bay, Banks Peninsula, New Zealand: Balancing Macronutrients by Simulation. Archaeology in New Zealand, 67(10): 16-36.

Leach, B.F. and J.M. Davidson. 2023. Life Without Coconuts in Pre-European New Zealand: Shellfish From Site S24/3, Foxton, Manawatu,an Economic Reconstruction. People and Culture in Oceania 39:19-42.

When Polynesians first arrived in New Zealand they encountered an environment bereft of the most ... more When Polynesians first arrived in New Zealand they encountered an environment bereft of the most important source of dietary fat in their homeland: coconuts. New Zealand abounds in sources of protein from the marine environment, and carbohydrate needs were satisfied by two imported cultigens (kūmara and taro), and locally available bracken rhizome. Finding adequate fat to balance nutritional requirements presented a significant problem. This study presents the results of a detailed study of the marine shellfish component in a midden on the shores of Cook Strait where bracken rhizome would have been the main source of carbohydrate for the people living there for at least six months of year. Simulation of various mixtures of shellfish and rhizome reveal a considerable challenge in reducing caloric energy from protein below a dangerous ceiling of c. 30%. Moreover, such a diet, dominated by protein and carbohydrate, would mean that the inhabitants would be in a constant state of "fat craving." Ethnographic records during the proto-historic period are consistent with this.

Clark, G. Leach,B.F. and O’Conner, S. (eds) 2008. Islands of Inquiry: Colonisation, seafaring and the archaeology of maritime landscapes. Papers in honour of Atholl Anderson. Terra Australis 29.

'Aye,' said the Captain, reverentially; 'it's a almighty element. There's wonders in the deep, my... more 'Aye,' said the Captain, reverentially; 'it's a almighty element. There's wonders in the deep, my pretty. Think on it when the winds is roaring and the waves is rowling. Think on it when the stormy nights is so pitch dark,' said the Captain, solemnly holding up his hook, 'as you can't see your hand afore you, excepting when the wiwid lightning reweals the same; and when you drive, drive, drive through the storm and dark, as if you was a driving, head on, to the world without end,'

Leach, B.F. 2016. The Dauntless Two of Martinborough. Privately published by Foss Leach New Place, 9 Maple Lane, Cottage Grove, Martinborough, 5711, New Zealand.

Although this volume is primarily a boy’s adventure story with a target readership of children an... more Although this volume is primarily a boy’s adventure story with a target readership of children and younger teenagers, the themes covered are relevant to adults with an interest in the social history of New Zealand during the two decades following World War 2. For example, much has been written by adults during and following the preparation of the Mazengarb Report on juvenile delinquency in 1954, but very little is recorded from the perspective of youngsters who lived through that tumult.

The setting of the book is 1953-1955 in the small rural town of Martinborough. The narrator is a 13 year old boy using the vernacular of the times. Although cast as fiction, it is based on real events. Each Chapter is a separate short story with no thematic or chronological connection with any other.

Some stories describe the wilder adventures of the Dauntless Two - trying to blow up the town rubbish dump, planning to rob a bank, building a human glider, making an underground fort, and diving for gold in the bottom of a local river. Others concern family activities - fishing at Kiriwai and in Lake Wairapapa, pig hunting, happy times in the family possom bach on the edge of the Rimutaka forest. A range of interesting characters appear, from eccentric old men to a much respected school teacher, the local police man, doctor and chemist. The Saturday visit to the flicks is a regular feature of life in the small rural town before television, and provides inspiration for some of the adventures, while the visit of a Circus is a one-off high light.

Leach, B.F. Fishing in Pre-European New Zealand. 2006. New Zealand Journal of Archaeology Special Publication. 359 pp.

Intoh,M. and Leach, B.F. 1985. Archaeological investigations in the Yap Islands. British Archaeological Reports S277. 200 pp.

by Foss Leach and M. Intoh

Leach,B.F. Snook,J., Gray,J., Thomas,H. Leach, P. and Watson, M. 2010. Every day is a holiday in New Zealand. The centennial history of James and Catherine Leach Immigrants from Bingley Yorkshire 1909. Privately published by the Leach family. 137 pp.

Leach, B.F. and Davidson, J.M. 2008. The Archaeology of Taumako: a Polynesian Outlier in the Eastern Solomon Islands. Monograph. New Zealand Journal of Archaeology Special Publication. 691 pp.

This lavishly illustrated volume describes the results of archaeological research carried out on ... more This lavishly illustrated volume describes the results of archaeological research carried out on the Polynesian Outlier of Taumako in the Santa Cruz Group (Temotu Province) of Solomon Islands in 1977–1978. The project was part of a wider interdisciplinary investigation of the Southeast Solomon and Santa Cruz Islands.The authors describe a 3,000-year sequence of continuity and change on Taumako, based on four excavations. Taumako is the home of the famous Tepuke sailing canoe and the excavations revealed evidence of a high level of interaction with other Pacific communities, both near and far. Taumako was also the scene of early contact with European voyagers. The authors draw on the accounts from Quiros’ voyage in AD 1606 to sketch a picture of the island society at that time. A few archaeological items of European material culture reflect this early contact. The excavation of a burial mound provide both abundant evidence of the people themselves during the last millennium and a rich inventory of shell ornaments, which show strong parallels with Santa Cruz collections in museums around the world. The highly uneven distribution of these ornaments, found with some women and babies as well as men, suggests that status in this small-scale society was inherited. Several studies of the biological affinities of the people show that this community was the result of multiple contacts with a variety of different people in the immediate area and further afield, as is also shown by the material culture. A surprising finding was the high level of yaws in the population, but the authors show that this is not so remarkable when historical evidence of yaws in other parts of Solomon Islands is considered. Locally made pottery, shell fishhooks and imported obsidian are present only in the early part of the sequence. The pottery is essentially plain but includes a few vessels with Lapita decoration, also made locally. High quality chert from Taumako has been found in earlier Lapita sites in Santa Cruz and the Reef Islands. Continuity throughout the Taumako sequence is seen in shell adzes, Trochus shell rings, shell ‘money’ beads and the large Tridacna shell breast plates, typical of Santa Cruz in early historic times but previously known only ethnographically. Impressions of loom woven textiles on some of these shell breast plates provide the first archaeological evidence of the loom in the Pacific. Faunal studies, particularly of molluscs, show interesting differences between two faunal-rich sites and an extraordinary change through time in one of them from exploitation of gastropods to bivalves, particularly one very small bivalve species, Paphies (Atactodea) striata. Supporting information is presented in 18 specialist appendices. Detailed metrical data are included in an attached CD.

Leach, B.F. Fishing in Pre-European New Zealand. 2006. Archaeofauna 15

ABSTRACT: New Zealand was first discovered less than one thousand years ago by people from Easter... more ABSTRACT: New Zealand was first discovered less than one thousand years ago by people from Eastern Polynesia, who were ancestors of the present New Zealand Ma¯ori. They were the descendants of people with a long maritime tradition, who took their first steps into the Oceanic world east of New Guinea some 35,000 years ago. By the time these people had settled the far flung islands of the Pacific and reached New Zealand they possessed advanced fishing technology and deep knowledge of fish habits and ecology. This paper reviews the current state of knowledge of the archaeozoology of fishing in prehistoric New Zealand. It begins with preliminary sections describing the tropical Pacific background to New Zealand archaeology, and the methodologies which are used in New Zealand relating to fishing and the analysis of fish remains. This is followed by a description of the New Zealand fishery, and the species which were caught by prehistoric Ma¯ori. A database in the Museum of New Zealand contains information on fish remains from 126 archaeological sites covering all regions and periods in New Zealand (total MNI=40,400). Although about 750 species are present in New Zealand waters, only about 35 occur in prehistoric catches, and of these only 6 occur with abundances over 7%. These are: barracouta, Thyrsites atun (Gempylidae); blue cod, Parapercis colias (Mugiloididae); snapper, Pagrus auratus (Sparidae); wrasses (Labridae); red cod, Pseudophycis bachus (Moridae); and greenbone, Odax pullus (Odacidae). Together these make up 85% of all fishes caught in prehistoric times. The technology and material culture associated with these prehistoric catches are described, tracing the knowledge of cordage and knots, netting and fish hooks, canoe design, fish preservation and cooking methods. Special attention is given to the functional attributes of the rotating hook, so common throughout Oceania. The economic basis of prehistoric Ma¯ori society varied markedly in New Zealand from horticultural people in the north to hunter-gatherers in the south. Regionalism in fish catches is examined, and although a biogeographical base to this can be identified, there is also a strong cultural expression over the top of it. A large section of the paper is concerned with changes in fish catches over archaeological time. Two aspects are considered –changes in relative abundance of fish types over time, and changes in size-frequency diagrams over time. It is found that New Zealand-wide trends have very little meaning, but that changes relating to the activities of essentially individual prehistoric communities show significant trends. These changes are presented after first considering climate change over the last 1,000 years and, in particular, the way that this affected surface sea water temperatures. There is increasing evidence that the so-called Little Ice Age was important in New Zealand, resulting in dramatic changes in fish recruitment rates, and in one case the extinction of a spawning population. This was the genetically distinctive snapper population of Tasman Bay in the northern South Island. This is reflected in the absence of snapper in prehistoric catches in this area during the period of the Little Ice Age. Of special interest is the finding that sustained predation in many parts of New Zealand resulted in increasing fish size over archaeological time. This is attributed to the widespread Polynesian custom of taking all fish, no matter how small, putting pressure on juveniles to increase their growth rate. This conclusion is supported by experimental research on preferential targeting of fish of different sizes, resulting in rapid evolution through genetic selection. The role of fish in early New Zealand diet is then considered, bearing in mind fundamental aspects of human nutritional needs. It is shown that protein was effectively super-abundant in prehistoric New Zealand, largely because of the wealth of marine foods available, and that the more important consideration was access to fat and/or carbohydrate foods. Isotope research on human bone collagen shows that food deriving from the marine environment varied from about 11% for inland people to 61% for some coastal peoples. The final part of the paper is concerned with modelling human predation and its effect on marine environments. It is suggested that archaeologists need to be a great deal more careful in this field in future and work from the bottom up, not the top down. In particular, optimal foraging theory is criticised as naive and not well founded in evidence in the case of marine food gathering. The widespread custom of `slash and burn and fallow’ has a counterpart in marine harvesting whereby people take all specimens down to very small size, depleting an area of its biomass, and then move away to a new settlement, leaving the former area to recover over long periods. There is considerable evidence for such a pattern of exploitation of the marine environment. This is a conservation strategy not often considered by archaeologists or in modern fisheries management. Prehistoric Ma¯ori fishermen in New Zealand were clearly extremely knowledgeable about all aspects of the New Zealand fishery. The abundance of fish available meant that all necessary food could be obtained The role of fish in early New Zealand diet is then considered, bearing in mind fundamental aspects of human nutritional needs. It is shown that protein was effectively super-abundant in prehistoric New Zealand, largely because of the wealth of marine foods available, and that the more important consideration was access to fat and/or carbohydrate foods. Isotope research on human bone collagen shows that food deriving from the marine environment varied from about 11% for inland people to 61% for some coastal peoples. The final part of the paper is concerned with modelling human predation and its effect on marine environments. It is suggested that archaeologists need to be a great deal more careful in this field in future and work from the bottom up, not the top down. In particular, optimal foraging theory is criticised as naive and not well founded in evidence in the case of marine food gathering. The widespread custom of `slash and burn and fallow’ has a counterpart in marine harvesting whereby people take all specimens down to very small size, depleting an area of its biomass, and then move away to a new settlement, leaving the former area to recover over long periods. There is considerable evidence for such a pattern of exploitation of the marine environment. This is a conservation strategy not often considered by archaeologists or in modern fisheries management. Prehistoric Ma¯ori fishermen in New Zealand were clearly extremely knowledgeable about all aspects of the New Zealand fishery. The abundance of fish available meant that all necessary food could be obtained in shallow waters, more than 80% being caught less than 100 metres from the shore.

Leach, B.F. 2003. Depletion and Loss of the Customary Fishery of Ngati Hinewaka: 130 years of Struggle to Protect a Resource Guaranteed under Article Two of the Treaty of Waitangi. Report presented to the Waitangi Tribunal, Document Wai-863-#A71.

Leach, B.F. 1997. A guide to the identification of fish remains from New Zealand archaeological sites. New Zealand Journal of Archaeology Special Publication. 129 pp.

Approximately 1,000 species of fish are found in New Zealand waters, but of these only a very sma... more Approximately 1,000 species of fish are found in New Zealand waters, but of these only a very small number were exploited to any significant degree by pre-European Ma¯ori. Some archaeological sites have only one or two fish types present, many have about ten, and a few have as many as 20 types. In all, only about 50 types are found in archaeological sites, and these are largely inshore fish which live amongst rocky weedy areas, or in open beaches, or rough ground slightly offshore. This makes the task of identifying bones much easier. This volume is an anatomical atlas of five cranial bones of 45 of the most commonly caught species in pre-Eureopean New Zealand (Dentary, Premaxilla, Articular, Maxilla, and Quadrate), together with a number of special highly distinctive bones.

Leach, B.F. and Boocock, A. 1993. Prehistoric Fish Catches in New Zealand. British Archaeological Reports, International Series 584. 303 pp.

Festchrift 1989. Saying So Doesn’t Make it So: Papers in Honour of B.Foss Leach. Sutton, D.G. (ed.). New Zealand Archaeological Association Monograph 17. 303 pp.

Leach, B.F. and Ward, G.K. 1981. Archaeology on Kapingamarangi Atoll: a Polynesian outlier in the Eastern Caroline Islands. 150 pp. Privately published by B.F. Leach.

Leach, B.F. and Leach,H.M. (eds) 1979. Prehistoric Man in Palliser Bay. National Museum of New Zealand Bulletin 21. 272 pp.

by Foss Leach and Helen Leach

Leach, B.F., Davidson, J.M., Burtenshaw, M. and T. Tomlin. 2024. Experimental kumara gardens at Whatarangi, Palliser Bay and Robin Hood Bay, Marlborough, New Zealand: Results after 23 years. Journal of Pacific Archaeology 14(1): 1-25.

Two experimental gardens of kūmara (Ipomoea batatas), one on each side of Cook Strait, New Zealan... more Two experimental gardens of kūmara (Ipomoea batatas), one on each side of Cook Strait, New Zealand, were planted and harvested without fertiliser for a period of 14 and 23 years respectively. The mean annual yield for the garden on the north side of Cook Strait was 10.2 tonne/ha and 7.5 tonne/ha for the southern garden. More than 90% of tubers harvested weighed less than 100 g. Yields fluctuated considerably, but did not decline over time. We monitored rainfall, sunshine hours, air and soil temperatures, and several soil chemical characteristics. Some correlations with yield were found, but do not account for the high degree of variation in annual yield. Between plant variation in yield was a similar order of magnitude as annual variation. Attention to individual plants during the growing season may contribute to yield variation. No correlation was found between seed size and individual plant yield. Several soil nutrients declined significantly over time. Conversely, phosphorus consistently rises over time in both gardens, starting about 10mg/L and rising to c.50 mg/L after 12 years. This is attributed to vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) around the root system of kūmara. A minor sub-project with taro, Colocasia esculenta, shows success on both sides of Cook Strait. Results from the research were modelled to estimate pre-European population size in Palliser Bay.

Leach, B.F., Davidson, J.M. and Horwood, L.M. 1997. Prehistoric Ma¯ori Fishermen at Kokohuia, Hokianga Harbour, Northland, New Zealand. Man and Culture in Oceania 13: 99–116.

Leach, B.F. and H.M. Leach. 1969. Archaeology in the Wairarapa. Privately circulated booklet, Anthropology Department, University of Otago.

Leach , B.F., Davidson, J.M., Fraser, K., Quinn , C. and J. Morrison. 1997. Isotope Analysis and Dietary Reconstruction of two Individuals from an Archaeological Site at Tina, Southern New Caledonia. Technical Report 25 Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa.

Three isotopes were determined on collagen extracts from human femoral bones of two individuals (... more Three isotopes were determined on collagen extracts from human femoral bones of two individuals (male and female) from an archaeological site at Tina, southeastern Grande Terre, New Caledonia, dating to c. 850 BP. Diagenetic change was ruled out after both C/N ratios and amino acid analysis proved satisfactory. The  13 C signatures of both individuals suggest that dietary carbon was obtained from a mixture of both marine and terrestrial sources. The  15 N signature was strongly terrestrial, and the  34 S leans more towards marine or C4 plants. Although C4 plants are dominant in New Caledonian grasslands today, these species are post-European. Since large land mammals are only recent introductions, any indirect contribution from C4 plants (such as protein from sugar cane bargasse) to the diet of prehistoric people is ruled out. Multiple analyses for all isotopes were carried out, interspersed with a bone standard, and final results showed variable coefficients of variation ( 13 C c. 0.6%,  15 N c. 4%, and  34 S c.5%). A stochastic simulation model was used to estimate the amounts of five main components of prehistoric diet of the two individuals. Although the estimated amounts of each component were very similar for each, the results for the male showed a much wider range of variation than for the female. Modern ethnographic research in the Solomon islands showed similar gender based differentiation in diet. The estimated macronutrient ratio (MNR) of the two Tina individuals was typical of tropical Pacific horticultural societies at c. 22:14: 64.

Leach, B.F. and J.M. Davidson. 1999. Analysis of Faunal Remains from the Lapita Site 13A, New Caledonia.Technical Report 33 Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa.

Leach, B.F. 2024. Analysis of Fish Bones from a Site at Tumbledown Bay, Banks Peninsula, New Zealand: Balancing Macronutrients by Simulation. Archaeology in New Zealand, 67(10): 16-36.

Leach, B.F. and J.M. Davidson. 2023. Life Without Coconuts in Pre-European New Zealand: Shellfish From Site S24/3, Foxton, Manawatu,an Economic Reconstruction. People and Culture in Oceania 39:19-42.

When Polynesians first arrived in New Zealand they encountered an environment bereft of the most ... more When Polynesians first arrived in New Zealand they encountered an environment bereft of the most important source of dietary fat in their homeland: coconuts. New Zealand abounds in sources of protein from the marine environment, and carbohydrate needs were satisfied by two imported cultigens (kūmara and taro), and locally available bracken rhizome. Finding adequate fat to balance nutritional requirements presented a significant problem. This study presents the results of a detailed study of the marine shellfish component in a midden on the shores of Cook Strait where bracken rhizome would have been the main source of carbohydrate for the people living there for at least six months of year. Simulation of various mixtures of shellfish and rhizome reveal a considerable challenge in reducing caloric energy from protein below a dangerous ceiling of c. 30%. Moreover, such a diet, dominated by protein and carbohydrate, would mean that the inhabitants would be in a constant state of "fat craving." Ethnographic records during the proto-historic period are consistent with this.

A cache of one-piece fishhooks from Pohara, Takaka, New Zealand

Islands of Inquiry: Colonisation, seafaring and the archaeology of maritime landscapes, Jun 1, 2008

Prehistoric Fishing in the Tropical Pacific Region and New Zealand, and Human Influences on the Marine Environment. Published in Japanese as Leach, B.F. 2003. pp 55-70 In: Akira Matsui (ed.) Kino Bunka Honeno Bunka.

This paper reviews salient points about the prehistory of fishing in the Pacific region. Fishing ... more This paper reviews salient points about the prehistory of fishing in the Pacific region. Fishing began in this region about 35,000 years ago along the coastal areas of New Ireland. This provided the beginnings of a maritime technology which ultimately led to the discovery and settlement of many thousands of islands in the Pacific by people sharing a common language family known as Austronesian. In this discussion about fishing in the Pacific I focus attention mainly on the tropical areas of island Oceania, but give some attention to communities in temperate waters, such as New Zealand. Throughout this region there are about 1500 species of fish, with changes in natural abundance patterns mainly by latitude. Seasonal effects are largely confined to the colder southern waters. A few areas, such as the Marquesas Islands and Easter Island, are generally regarded as having impoverished marine faunas. This is mainly because of the absence of developed coral reefs. However, archaeological studies on several islands in the Marquesas group certainly show that fishing was a very important activity for these people. Access to fish stocks, therefore, does not seem to have been a limiting economic factor for oceanic communities. Although there are a large number of fish species in the Pacific, only about 50 were taken in any abundance by prehistoric people. An even smaller number of these were focused on. In the tropical areas, 6 families of fish account for 66% of all fish taken, and in New Zealand 6 families account for 85% of all catches. Statistics of this kind come from research in the Archaeozoology Laboratory at the Museum of New Zealand. We have studied archaeological fish remains from 24 different island groups in the tropical Pacific and 126 archaeological sites in New Zealand. The combined minimum number of individuals is greater than 50,000. This represents a good sample from which to make general observations about fishing behaviour. In addition, measurements are made on archaeological bones to reconstruct the size-frequency diagrams of fish catches, so that changes through time can be observed for select species. The six most common fish types in order of relative abundance are as follows: Tropical Pacific Temperate New Zealand Family Common Name Family Common Name Scaridae Parrotfish Gemphylidae Barracouta etc Epinephelidae Grouper Mugiloididae Blue Cod Lethrinidae Emperor Sparidae Snapper Balistidae Triggerfish Labridae Spotty etc Coridae Tuskfish Moridae Red Cod Scombridae Tuna etc. Odacidae Greenbone There are some notable discrepancies in relative quantities of fish types in archaeological sites from one part of the Pacific to another which are not due to changes in natural abundance. These represent pockets of specialised fishing behaviour, and witness a dominating role of human choice; that is cultural factors, rather than economic factors, or environmental determinants. This has important theoretical implications when trying to model cultural or technological evolution in this region. Two notable forms of specialisation are the tuna fishing activities of people in the Marquesas and Society Islands, and marlin fishing in the Marianas. In a number of places in the Pacific we can observe significant changes through time in fish catches, not only in species abundance, but also in fish sizes. In a few cases, we can document changes in the natural environment over time, but most of the observed changes are probably related to cultural factors, including changes in food avoidance behaviour, such as totemism. One classic case of this concerns eels. In some societies eels are considered disgusting and dangerous to eat, whereas other groups consider them a delicacy. Such patterns of non-rational behaviour sometimes change through time. In New Zealand we have been able to observe significant changes in the size-frequency diagrams of prehistoric fish catches over time. We have been surprised to find that in most cases the average size of fish increased over the centuries. This is the case for several species, and for a number of archaeological sites. In early catches very small fish were being taken, far smaller than could be caught with baited hook. This suggests that entrapment techniques such as nets were common. Later in time, these very small fish are less abundant, and we believe this is because people were catching fish in somewhat deeper water, and making greater use of baited hook and line. Isotope studies of human bone have shown that fish were indeed important in the diet of many groups. However, in line with theoretical studies of the dietary requirements of humans, other ingredients assume great importance too. It is suggested that the overriding factor in maintaining a successful economy for prehistoric people in the Pacific was access to adequate supplies of either carbohydrate or fat, and that fish represented a highly reliable, and effectively infinite supply of protein which could be taken for granted. I therefore characterise fish stocks as a super-abundant supply of protein, far beyond the capacity of most prehistoric human communities to deplete. Finally, I make some comments about the ultimate origin of fishing technology in the oceanic island world. I do not consider that we can convincingly demonstrate any connection between Japan and Micronesia during the prehistoric period. However, there is a better chance that there was a connection between Taiwan and parts of the Mariana Islands. This has recently been revealed by discoveries of highly specialised dolphin fish fishing in Taiwan dating back as early as 5,000 BP. It is also present in the Marianas by 2,000 BP, but to the best of our knowledge it is found nowhere else in the Pacific world.

The Chronology of Occupation on Maungarei {Mount Wellington): a Large Volcanic Cone Pa in Auckland

Maungarei is one of a number of very extensive pre-European Maori settlements on the volcanic con... more Maungarei is one of a number of very extensive pre-European Maori settlements on the volcanic cones of Auckland. It was tbe scene of several major rescue excavations between 1960 and 1972. Recently obtained radiocarbon dates suggest that allbougb occupation may have begun earlier, the main phase of terrace construction and pit building on the cone was between the mid-sixteenth and late seventeenth centuries A.D. There was some later occupation of tbe substantially remodelled crater rim in the eighteenth or early nineteenth centuries, although the site was apparently uninhabited when Europeans first visited the area.

Prehistoric and Historic Maori Fishermen of Mana Island, Cook Strait, New Zealand

Fish remains from excavations in two parts of an extensive archaeological site on Mana Island, Co... more Fish remains from excavations in two parts of an extensive archaeological site on Mana Island, Cook Strait, were analysed. A total of 6380 identified bones produced a Minimum Number of Individuals of 1802 fish from at least 25 families. Recent surveys show that the archaeologically documented catches closely reflect the species still present in the immediate inshore environment. Comparison of one late (nineteenth century) and two early (fifteenth century) assemblages show an apparent decline in the importance of New Zealand snapper (Pagrus auraJus) and an increase in the use of netting, although angling with a demersal baited book was the dominant method used by all the Mana fishermen. Comparison with other assemblages from Cook Strait show that a wide range of species were taken, with widely varying proportions of different fish from one site to another. Although certain species are fou nd in most of the Cook Strait sites, no single species stands out, like snapper in the northern North Island or barracouta (Thyrsites atun) in much of the South Island.

The Chronology of the Natunuku Site, Fiji

Five radiocarbon dates are reported for the Lapila site of Natunuku (YLl/l), Fiji. These show tha... more Five radiocarbon dates are reported for the Lapila site of Natunuku (YLl/l), Fiji. These show that much of the supposedly early Lapila deposit dates to about 350 B.C., and that the single burial from the site, previously regarded as the remains of a 'Lapila person', is probably younger still, dating to about A.O. 100.

Archaeological Studies of Pacific Stone Resources

The physical and mineralogical characteristics of pottery from Mochong, Rota, Mariana Islands

Islands of Inquiry: Colonisation, seafaring and the archaeology of maritime landscapes

Calcite 30%, as rounded shell fragments, 0.5 mm. Matrix strong brown (7.5YR 4/8), many lenticular... more Calcite 30%, as rounded shell fragments, 0.5 mm. Matrix strong brown (7.5YR 4/8), many lenticular cracks parallel to surface of sherd. AT598. Mineral content 5%, up to 1 mm, 90% quartz, 10% magnetite. Calcite 40%, rounded shell fragments, up to 1 mm. Matrix banded red (10R 5/8) and dusky red (10R 3/3). AT602. Mineral content 15%, up to 1 mm, 90% quartz, 5% andesine, 5% magnetite. Calcite 15%, shell fragments, up to 1 mm. Matrix red (10R 4/6) to light red (10R 6/8), banded with globules of red clay present, many lenticular cracks parallel to axis of sherd. Assemblage C: VST, Spits 3 and 4 AT605. Mineral content 10%, 90% andesine, 5% quartz and 5% augite. Matrix orange (2.5YR 7/8) with red (10R 5/8) mottles, compact, many fine lenticular voids. AT619. Mineral content 15%, small angular grains, 0.5 mm, 50% labradorite, 25% rock fragments, 10% augite, 5% quartz. Matrix reddish yellow (5YR 7/8) to red (10R 5/8), pleochroic due to oriented clay particles, few large cracks parallel to axis of sherd. AT620. Mineral content 5%, fragments up to 0.5 mm, 50% quartz, 50% augite. Matrix reddish yellow (5YR 7/8) with strong brown (7.5YR 5/8) to reddish yellow (7.5YR 6/8) mottles, fine globular structure, broken into small fragments with many voids. AT623. Mineral content 10%, angular, 0.25 mm, 80% quartz and 20% magnetite. Calcite 5-10%, rounded shell fragments, 0.5 mm. Matrix reddish brown (5YR 5/4), compact, about 5-10% globular clay aggregates which may have been weathered feldspars or ferromagnesians, compact, thin lenticular voids parallel to axis of sherd. AT624. Mineral content 5%, fragments 0.3 mm, 70% andesine, 15% quartz and 15% augite. Matrix red (10R 5/8), birefringent and shows flow structure of clay aggregates, some globules may be altered feldspars or ferromagnesians, compact, many fine lenticular cracks. Assemblage D: CST, Spits 9, 10 and 11 AT628. Mineral content <1%, quartz only, 0.2 mm. Calcite 50%, shell fragments, 0.3 mm. Matrix light red (10R 6/8), clay shows flow structures around shell fragments, many cracks perpendicular and parallel to axis. AT629. Mineral content 5%, fragments 0.2 mm, 40% labradorite, 20% quartz, 20% magnetite, 10% olivine and 10% augite. Calcite 5%, rounded grains, very strongly weathered, shell structure not visible, 0.5 mm. Matrix reddish yellow (5YR 7/8) and red (10R 5/8), pleochroic, no preferred orientation shown, some large cracks parallel to axis of sherd. AT630. Mineral content 2%, fragments 0.25 mm, 40% quartz, 40% oligoclase, 15% magnetite and 5% horneblende. Calcite 20%, rounded shell fragments, 0.3 mm. Matrix red (10R 5/8), shows pleochroic flow structures, many cracks parallel to axis of sherd and many large voids which may be due to plucking of grains during grinding. AT633. Mineral content 5%, fragments 0.2 mm, 40% quartz, 40% andesine, 15% magnetite and 5% horneblende. Calcite 30%, shell fragments, 1 mm. Matrix yellowish red (5YR 4/6), birefringent but does not show prominent flow structures, many fine cracks parallel to axis of sherd. AT643. Mineral content 5%, angular fragments, up to 0.5 mm, 95% quartz, 5% magnetite. Calcite 20%, rounded fragments without obvious shell structure, 0.5 mm. Matrix mottled light red (10R 6/8) and reddish brown (5YR 4/4), many fine cracks with no apparent preferred orientation.

Experimental growing of pre-European cultivators of kumara (sweet potato, Ipomoea Batatas [L.] Lam) at the southern margins of Maori horticulture

The Cook Strait region of central New Zealand has generally been considered climatically marginal... more The Cook Strait region of central New Zealand has generally been considered climatically marginal for pre-European Maori horticulture. Experimental cultivation of three pre-European Maori cultivars of kiimara ('Taputini', ' Rekamaroa' and ' Hutihiti ' ) has shown that it is possible to grow these varieties under present climatic conditions, even though the soil fertility in the experimental gardens is far from ideal for kiimara. Tuber losses during storage between harvest and planting are significant, suggesting that kiimara could not be kept as a significant source of carbohydrate beyond the next planting season. One cultivar, 'Taputini', performed extremely well during the drought in the region in 2000-2001. The existence of such a droughtresistant variety has important implications for discussions of dry-land horticulture in tropical Polynesia as well as New Zealand.

Subterranean storage pits for kumara (sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas L. Lam.): Ethnographic, archaeological and experimental research in New Zealand

Archaeology on Kapingamarangi Atoll: a Polynesian outlier in the eastern Caroline Islands

An academic directory and search engine.

The New Zealand bracken fern rhizome, Pteridium esculentum (G.Forst): a toxic food plant of pre‐European Māori

Archaeology in Oceania

The two species of bracken fern, Pteridium esculentum and Pteridium aquilinum, are well known to ... more The two species of bracken fern, Pteridium esculentum and Pteridium aquilinum, are well known to produce neoplastic lesions and thiamine deficiency when consumed by mammals, with severe consequences to health. New Zealand Pre-European Māori are known to have consumed rhizomes of P. esculentum as food with little or no recorded consequences to health. Processing methods by Māori prior to consumption may have helped to detoxify this food. We carried out LDH toxicity tests on rhizomes that had been pre-processed before simulated digestion to test this possibility. We tested rhizomes harvested each month of the year, different components of the rhizome, both raw and roasted rhizomes, rhizomes stored for up to 12 months, and rhizomes leached for up to 24 hours. All specimens remained equally toxic within experimental error. We carried out a detailed analysis of nutrients in bracken rhizome and compared this with kūmara, Ipomoea batatas, another important food plant for pre-European Māori, and found that bracken rhizome has c. 70% of the caloric value of kūmara. A cost/benefit analysis of the two plants suggested that the reward for effort is greatest for kūmara by a modest amount. Analysis of historic ethnographic observations relating to bracken rhizome from AD 1769 to the 1840s provides complex and contradictory evidence of the role of bracken rhizome in the Māori economic system. Although there is clear evidence that Māori greatly favoured chewing rhizomes, this fondness may result from the presence of one or more plant secondary metabolites (PSM), such as ecdysone, which are known to be addictive. Our analysis of the evidence favours the plant being essentially a famine food, filling in the period between planting and harvest of kūmara, known as the &#39;hungry gap&#39; between October and April in the southern hemisphere. However, it would also have provided an important source of food for travellers, as fern-lands are widespread. Our analysis of archaeological information did not produce unequivocal direct evidence of bracken rhizome consumption. However, the presence of extreme tooth wear and a unique pattern of first molar dislocation, attributed to the use of teeth to strip starch from rhizomes, has been shown to be present at all periods of New Zealand prehistory. This is contrary to the finding of some other researchers.

Leach, B.F., Davidson, J.M., Fraser, K. and Anderson, A.J. 1999. Pre-European catches of barracouta, Thyrsites atun, at Long Beach and Shag River, Otago, New Zealand. Archaeofauna 8: 11–30.

Leach, B.F. 2023. Hua-angarua Pa: An Important 19th Century Maori Village Near Martinborough. Report for the Working Group of the Maori Standing Committee of the South Wairarapa District Council.

THE NAME HUA-ANGARUA BACKGROUND TO THE SETTLEMENT AT HUA-ANGARUA HISTORY OF HUA-ANGARUA PĀ Visits... more THE NAME HUA-ANGARUA BACKGROUND TO THE SETTLEMENT AT HUA-ANGARUA HISTORY OF HUA-ANGARUA PĀ Visits to Hua-angarua pā by William Colenso Summary observations of Hua-angarua pā Hua-angarua was an important village in the Wairarapa The population was highly mobile There was a highly effective communication network There was a church at Hua-angarua Recreational activities at Hua-angarua Population size at Hua-angarua There was an Urupā at Hua ngarua There were livestock and gardens at Hua ngarua Establishment of the Hua

Leach, B.F. 2018. The Antecedents of Martinborough: The Historical Roots until 1880. Report for the Martinborough Museum.

The Chronology of Human Settlement in the Vicinity of Martinborough. From our present day vantage... more The Chronology of Human Settlement in the Vicinity of Martinborough. From our present day vantage point it is easy to forget that during the early days of European settlement in the lower Wairarapa valley Pakeha were a minority in a landscape dominated by Māori. In short, Europeans were strangers in an area well known to others who had been wandering this land for upwards of 800 years before them. The early 19 th century was a clash between two cultures, where each had to adapt to the other.

Leach, B.F. 1979. Archaeological fieldwork diary: Kapingamarangi. Handwritten triplicate Book. 258 pp.

Leach, B.F. 1980. Kapingamarangi, A Polynesian Outlier in the Eastern, Caroline Islands Archaeological Fieldwork Diary: 22 November 1979 to 11 February 1980. 88 pp.

Not for citation without written permission from Foss Leach Introduction The following is my fiel... more Not for citation without written permission from Foss Leach Introduction The following is my fieldwork diary during archaeological work on Kapingamarangi. I was accompanied by Graeme Ward, and the project was a contract with the TTPI Historic Preservation Office in Saipan on the basis of a 50% financial contribution each. Thursday 22 November Met Graeme at the international airport in Sydney and we caught a Philippines airline flight to Manilla. It was a long flight of about 8 hours and was-3 hours time shift. We arrived about 3.30 pm after an enjoyable flight. We spent much time trying to fathom a new calculator which Graeme bought which has numerous time zones stored away in it. After customs etc. we went in a taxi to the Hyatt Regency hotel, a palatial place next to the bay. After checking in we relaxed with a beer and then went out, to a remarkable restaurant called Josephine's and had a very nice but inexpensive dinner. We stayed up until about 10 p.m. to overcome time differences, slept fitfully until 4.30 a.m. and then got up. Friday 23 November Spent morning trying to get a shirt for Graeme (unsuccessful). We checked out after an argument with the assistant manager about tax. We were told we were exempt because we paid in foreign currency; however, when it came to the crunch we had to pay an extra 23%. We got to the airport at 10.40 to depart at 12.40 (N B 2 hour check in time!) and finally made a Pan Am jumbo. A pleasant 3 hour flight to Guam and then we were met by Roy Tsuda, Rebecca Stephenson, and Jerry Ayers. Greeted with leis and kisses and after checking into the Continental hotel were whisked off to Stel Newman's for a party. All very hospitable and Hawaiian in style. We crashed around 10.30 pm. Saturday 24 November Up at 5 a.m. and checked in at 6.30 at airport. Caught flight 00661 to Saipan at 7.30, arriving about 8 a.m. Ross Cordy met us at the airport. We retired to his offices on Capitol Hill after checking in at the Hafadai hotel, P.O.Box 338. Saipan. We discussed quite a few things throughout the day. He said that including the cost of transporting our equipment in the travel part of the budget is OK, and that travelling home via Hawaii to see Emory/Buck material on Kapinga and the Nukuoro material is perfectly satisfactory. He suggested that we should not skimp on expenses and that if anything it would be difficult to dispose of funds unspent at the end of the project. He doubled the allowance for local labour by adding another $1950, and will arrange for Narsi to get us the cash somehow. Artefacts: we should work out what is best with the Chief Magistrate on Kapingamarangi and get a letter from him. Ross suggests that the artefacts should go to the Ponape Museum at the end of the project contract. He has extended this for us to 12 months after leaving the field. Only the finished 'display" type artefacts should be sent back; all chippings and debitage should be retained in N.Z. Similarly, all midden material should be retained in N.Z. If we collect any modern cultural material, there is no embargo on its export, only on valuable ancient artefacts. Regarding skeletal material, Ross thinks that it would be a great shame to have this reburied, and that storage conditions are not good enough at Ponape or anywhere else for long term storage. Consequently we should try to get permission from the chief magistrate on Kapinga to give it to a suitable museum in New Zealand. Any artefacts which might perish in poor storage conditions should also be stored in N.Z., but we Wednesday 28 November Up at 6 a.m. as usual. We saw a Kapingi man with Father Cavanaugh recounting to us the tradition about an earlier group of people on Kapinga. Father translated it from Ponapean to English for us. We went up to communication centre by taxi and spoke to Mike on the island. We learned that the erosion on the island is disturbing a lot of material, and they are collecting some of it for us and taking photographs. We finally managed to see Narsi and he is calling a meeting tomorrow 9 a.m. Spent most of the day getting stores in 2 shops. Spent evening again talking to Father and went to bed 9.30 p.m. Thursday 29 November Went to a special meeting of the Ponape Historic Preservation Committee at 9 a.m. The meeting actually started at 10 a.m. after much general talking and non-starting. Graeme and I spoke for 2 hours about our project, money matters, artefact etc. It was all rather formal. One of the Europeans-Dave?-translated into Ponapean and back for us. This was very well handled. In the afternoon we tried to obtain the last of our supplies, arranging for a drum each of Kerosene and petrol. Ended up with rubbing alcohol for the primus. I must bring my own methylated spirits in future, as I always have this difficulty. Rang Scott Russel about non-appearance of telegram over the extra money. Narsi won't give us until he gets written assurance it will be refunded to him from Saipan. Went for a wander after tea and to bed 9 p.m. Friday 30 November Still no real news about a ship and/or departure date. We went to Ace store at 7 a.m. and were privileged to get a sack of rice and 16 kg sugar for a consideration. These are practically black market items now, and we were very lucky to get this. Graeme is struggling with various people to get obtain a 72-hour visa for our passage through Hawaii-he rings Scott Russel each day who is being very helpful. The telegram finally came asking Narsi to pay us the extra $2,000 for local labour on the Island and we got that money. Matt Mix of the Ponape Federation of Coop. Associations, P.O. Box 100, ECI 96941 has been very helpful to us. Dredged up 4 crates for us to use for packing artefacts on the way back. We got these to the mission to store, We also got the equipment crate after a small hassle. The consignment papers had to be stamped by Inland Revenue and Customs (tax exempt-no sale items) before it would be released. The documents seem to show that I have actually overpaid on the crate, and I will try to sort this out when I get back. We got one or two final things such as pepper grinder and came back to the usual pleasant evening meal. There is a retreat on this weekend and there are a lot of extra people from PAT the agricultural college on the other side of the island. We had a discussion with a young chap after dinner about special creation and C14 dating-two subjects which belong to rather different intellectual traditions. We heard that the M.V. Caroline will arrive here about 3 December, and leave 6-8 December. Here's hoping we make it. Retired 9.15 p.m. Saturday 1 December Wrote a few letters in the morning. Matt Mix took us to the Village hotel where we spent a very pleasant day drinking beer and discussing various things. We took all the different Micronesian reports and spent some time pondering them. Alan Haun's truck was about, but of him we saw no sign. All along this part of the coast pillow lava flows are to be seen. Some of the basalt looks good quality. We have collected one sample of the basalt from within the community College campus area. Several letters arrived. I wrote a short statement on our work for radio and the Ponape Sun newspaper and Graeme revised. Only a few people at dinner. Retired very tired at 8.30 pm. Sunday 2 December Had a very lazy day. Up at 6 a.m. as usual and spent morning writing letters and afternoon reading National Geographics and Time etc. There is a report of a bad tide of 9 ft waves on Majuro causing 5 26 million dollars damage the other day. These tides come each year when trade winds start. This will have been the cause of the recent erosion on Kapinga which has prompted Mike Leiber to do some salvage for us. A tropical storm passed us to the south with heavy rain all day and light winds. Caught a PNG pidgin broadcast at 2.0 and 3.5 mHz. Bed at 9 p.m. as usual. Monday 3 December Up at 6 am as usual. The storm has more of less blown itself out. Read a small booklet on Nan Madol which has quite a good list of references as follows:

Leach, B.F. and J.M. Davidson. 1979. Passismanua, Kandrian district of New Britain. Archaeological fieldwork diary: 20 April to 27 May 1979. Unpublished Manuscript. 46 pp. National Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa.

Leach, B.F., Leach, H.M., and R.G. Law, 2022.The Chronology of Pre-European Settlement in Palliser Bay A Re-Evaluation of Radiocarbon Dating Fifty Years On.Manuscript.

A series of 40 archaeological excavations were carried out in Palliser Bay, Aotearoa, New Zealand... more A series of 40 archaeological excavations were carried out in Palliser Bay, Aotearoa, New Zealand, between 1969 and 1972. These were dated with 33 charcoal samples by the then Institute of Nuclear Sciences in New Zealand. Publications of this research in the 1970s presented the radiocarbon dates using the common format of the day, calendrical years, calculated as 1950 minus the reported age (RA). Staff at the Institute of Nuclear Sciences established a computer database in the 1980s and recalculated all previous dates. Although the original RA values can no longer be exactly reproduced they are close to the Conventional Radiocarbon Age (CRA), which average about 7 years different to the original RAs. The chronology of Palliser Bay human settlement was originally published as beginning c. AD 1150, using the RA values. Several scholars, reviewing the date of colonization of New Zealand, have settled on a date of about 100 years later than this, and have suggested the earliest Palliser Bay dates were too early, and may have had consistent inbuilt age. During the original sample selection for dating, rigorous attention was given to the issue of inbuilt age, and this was not the reason for the 100 year discrepancy. Calibration of the Palliser Bay CRAs resulted in moving the chronology forward to about AD 1250, which is consistent with current views on foundation settlement of New Zealand. Two cases that were suspected in 1970 of having inbuilt age were re-dated in Oxford by AMS using separate samples with minimal inbuilt age and gave significantly more recent dates in a credible range. Alternative dates for three sites using shell samples to test the charcoal dates were not chosen from the same chronological contexts, and, using the latest methods for calibrating shell dates, do not conflict with those from charcoal. This paper reviews the chronology of human settlement in Palliser Bay.

Leach, B.F. 1987. Diary of Singapore Fieldwork 13-29 May 1987. Unpublished manuscript, Archaeozoology Laboratory, Museum of New Zealand. 31 p.

Up about 6am. Had breakfast and caught taxi to airport only to be told by Eagle Air that the fog ... more Up about 6am. Had breakfast and caught taxi to airport only to be told by Eagle Air that the fog might prevent anything getting off the ground all day. The fare was $83, and a taxi to Auckland airport was $145. In the end I took a taxi, which took about one and a half hours. It was a pleasant trip with a large Maori with a CNG car ($8 fuel for the round trip). When we went past the sacred mountain just north of Ngaruawahia he slowed down and inclined his head towards the mountain saying that it was a good luck charm to do so. He played League in NSW and occasionally in Hamilton. We discussed politics and a number of thing which we seemed to see eye to eye about. An interesting trip. There was a Tongan kava bowl in a shop in the airport on sale for $2500 labelled 19th Century. I asked the lady about it and she said that she was selling it on behalf of the Auckland Museum. Very strange-has the museum got permission from the Tongan Government to sell this ? I don't like to see things like this for sale in public places.

Leach, B.F. 1987. Diary of an obsidian collecting sojourn 5-19 January 1987. Unpublished manuscript, Archaeozoology Laboratory, Museum of New Zealand. 12 p.

Up at 5am, had coffee and packed up. Left Otaki beach at 5.30am (trip = 320 = 49015km). Very plea... more Up at 5am, had coffee and packed up. Left Otaki beach at 5.30am (trip = 320 = 49015km). Very pleasant morning on the road with little traffic. Got to Desert road and stopped for coffee at 8.30am (546 ie. 226km. 75 km/hour average-sticking to 80 km/h) As soon as I stopped, swarms of large flies surrounded the shady side of van, but left after about 10 minutes. There are several species of Dracophyllum by road-low shrub varieties. Beautiful clear day with Ruapehu and Ngauruhoe looking magnificent. There is a large scree slope between two with very little tussock on it, but it looks stable enough. Why is that? Pylons over the countryside spoil the scene. Left at 9am and got to Taupo about 10.30am filled up petrol at Ridley's service station. Bought some maps etc and headed off to Kinloch at the head of Whangamata Bay. There are small pieces of obsidian in the beach sand. (Took a sample of sand). To the east of Kinloch near a spillway found a few larger pieces (sample taken). Drove back to junction of Kinloch Road and Whangamata Road and turned West. Drove into Hunt dog kennels-the man there said that scattered cobbles occurred on his property (marked on map). He directed me to Ben Lomond Station back to Poihipi Road turned west about 4km from junction, down a dip and up to top of rise over brow on right hand side. Met Mrs Weston and son Michael. She and Michael took ponies and gave me an automatic Honda motor cycle to ride. I followed them down the fault line where I met Jack Weston owner of station. He showed me the lower part of fault with obsidian (Location A). There is obsidian everywhere in various sized boulders scattered below the bluff. In the bluff itself there are sheer faces of obsidian, but would be difficult to extract workable pieces from this

Leach, B.F. 1987. Taumako ethnographic miscellany. Unpublished manuscript, Archaeozoology Laboratory, Museum of New Zealand. 39 p.

Leach, B.F. and J.M.Davidson. 1977. Taumako, a Polynesian Outlier in the outer eastern Solomon Islands. Archaeological Fieldwork Diary 3 Dec 1977 to 17 Mar 1978. Unpublished manuscript, Archaeozoology Laboratory, Museum of New Zealand. 148 p.

NB: The diary was first typed up from the handwritten triplicate notebooks by Baukje Blok in Dune... more NB: The diary was first typed up from the handwritten triplicate notebooks by Baukje Blok in Dunedin. This version was transcribed from Baukje's typescript by Janet Davidson using Word 2007, and completed 31 Jan 2022. Pagination follows Baukje's transcript. The notebooks are held with the Taumako archaeological collection at Te Papa in the Archaeozoology Laboratory.

Leach, B.F., 2021. Obsidian dating by sputter induced photon spectrometry: towards a dedicated transportable system for New Zealand archaeology. Unpublished manuscript.

This paper describes historical research on obsidian dating which was carried out at the Research... more This paper describes historical research on obsidian dating which was carried out at the Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, Oxford University, in 1983, and continued intermittently for several years after that at the Institute of Nuclear Sciences (INS) at Gracefield, New Zealand. The research was aimed at building a dedicated stand-alone instrument for dating obsidian using sputter induced photon spectrometry. Some difficulty was initially encountered maintaining a satisfactory vacuum during analysis of artefacts when Argon was leaked into the system for production of Ar+ ions for surface ablation. The system was improved dramatically by installing a high speed cryopump to the equipment chamber. This stabilized the vacuum and enabled satisfactory depth profiles of hydrogen in the surface of New Zealand archaeological obsidian specimens. Further research was suspended on the retirement of the author from the Archaeozoology Laboratory, Museum of New Zealand, and in July 1999 the equipment was gifted to the Archaeology Laboratory at University of Auckland under the management of Dr Martin Jones.

Some Implications of High Protein Marine Diets in prehistoric South Pacific Economies

Leach, B.F. 2017. What color is green glass? An examination of volcanic glasses from Easter island and Mayor Island in New Zealand

Several volcanic sources of glass from New Zealand and the wider Pacific region appear olive gree... more Several volcanic sources of glass from New Zealand and the wider Pacific region appear olive green to the human eye when observed in transmitted light. However, spectrographic analysis reveals that the true color is a blend of green, yellow, orange, and red, peaking in the red area at 650 nm. The reason for this discrepancy is the spectral sensitivity of the human eye, which is centered in the yellowish green area at 555 nm. Other obsidian types that appear black or grey to the human eye have transmittance curves, which, when adjusted by the same spectral sensitivity curve, also appear as olive green. The spectra of different sources of " green " obsidian are so similar that they cannot be distinguished in hand specimen. Introduction There are about 25 separate sources of obsidian in New Zealand, of which the best known is on a small offshore island in the Bay of Plenty called Mayor Island. The indigenous pre-European Maori people mad extensive use of almost all of these sources of obsidian and the raw material was traded amongst different communities throughout the country. It is of great interest to try and establish the routes by which the different types of obsidian moved from one place to another, and there have been many attempts to distinguish one source from another using a variety of methods, from density in heavy liquids 1 to XRF 2 and NAA 3 .

Leach, B.F. and Campbell, H. J. 2017. Petrographic description of prismatic macro-blades and other stone tools from Bougainville and New Britain. Unpublished manuscript.

This report describes the lithology of 26 stone tools from New Britain, Bougainville and Mailata.... more This report describes the lithology of 26 stone tools from New Britain, Bougainville and Mailata. Most are prismatic macro-blades. They are made from chert, volcanic and metavolcanic rock types. It is very surprising to find such large blades made from these relatively intractable materials. Direct percussion with hammer-stone is most likely to have been the method of manufacture. Controlling the exact point of impact and direction of a hammer-stone with the amount of force that was required for such blades to be made represents an impressive achievement by the artisans. Introduction In Europe, the development of prepared core prismatic 3 blade manufacture is closely associated with the emergence of the modern sub-species of human (Homo sapiens sapiens) about 50,000 years ago and the Upper Palaeolithic cultures. This was an important technological breakthrough, which permitted a greatly increased efficiency in producing large quantities of sharp straight cutting edges. In turn, these parallel-sided blades could be turned into a wide variety of tool types. As Peyson Sheets has shown, this technology, when applied using the pressure method, can produce successive blades at more than 90% efficiency from an available piece of stone. Sheet's experimental replications produce 2.1 m of cutting edge per kg of raw material (Sheets and Muto 1972: 632). Such an impressive achievement is made possible by a combination of dextrous skill, but more importantly, the knowledge of how to do it.