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Shani.D. Carter

Stevens Institute of Technology, Institutional Research, Office of the Provost, Associate Director of Assessment

Wagner College, Business, Faculty Member

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Dr. Carter is the Associate Director of Assessment at Stevens Institute of Technology. She received a Ph.D. in Industrial and Labor Relations (Personnel/Human Resource Studies, Labor Economics, and Research Methods) from Cornell University, a M.S. in Industrial and Labor Relations (Personnel/Human Resource Studies and Labor Economics) from Cornell University, and a B.A. in Government from Cornell University.

Dr. Carter is the founder of Current Business Issues in African Countries, which holds annual conferences and publishes proceedings. https://www.cbiac.net/

Dr. Carter has published more than 50 articles, book chapters, and conference proceedings on the following topics: training methods; factors of cognitive ability; affect; skill certification; measurement; student learning outcomes assessment; coefficient alpha; skills shortages; diversity; gender career paths; government labor force projections; and occupational-based, taxation-induced interstate migration.

Dr. Carter has traveled extensively for business and leisure to many globally important cities including: Nairobi, Kenya; London, Oxford, Canterbury, Brighton, Norfolk, King’s Lynn, Bath, and Derbyshire, England; Paris, Versailles, and Fontainebleau, France; Istanbul, Turkey; Athens, Delphi, Poros, Aegina, and Hydra, Greece; Beijing, and Shanghai, China; Sydney, Brisbane, Cairns, Darwin, Kakadu, Jabiru, Uluru (Ayer’s Rock), and Alice Springs, Australia; Vancouver and Montreal, Canada; Puerto Rico; Freeport and Nassau, Bahamas; Hamilton, St. George, and King’s Wharf, Bermuda; St. Thomas and St. John, USVI; Tortola and Virgin Gorda, BVI; Saint Martin / Sint Maarten.

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Papers by Shani.D. Carter

Toward a Unified Theory of the Relationship between Training Methods and Factors of Cognitive Ability

The paper proposes a theory that trainees have varying ability levels across different factors of... more The paper proposes a theory that trainees have varying ability levels across different factors of cognitive ability, and that these abilities are used in varying levels by different training methods. The paper reviews characteristics of training methods and matches these characteristics to different factors of cognitive ability. The paper proposes that if organizations assign trainees to methods of training based on trainees' cognitive ability profiles, then learning will be maximized.

Association for Institutional Research Enhancing knowledge. Expanding networks. Professional Development, Informational Resources & Networking

This paper reports the process experienced by faculty in a School of Education as they developed,... more

Business Environment, Employee Characteristics, and Productivity: Long-Term Effects of Deregulation on the Freight Railroad Industry from 1982 to 2018.

Eastern Economics Association, Boston, MA. , 2020

Test review of "Work Self-Efficacy Inventory (The),”

The Twenty-First Mental Measurements Yearbook. Lincoln, Nebraska: Buros Center for Testing., 2020

Test review of "Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test-Second Edition,”

The Twenty-First Mental Measurements Yearbook. Lincoln, Nebraska: Buros Center for Testing., 2020

Case Study of use of the Mental Measurements Yearbook for a Graduate Course – Industrial/Organizational Psychology

MMY Instructional Modules. Lincoln, Nebraska: Buros Center for Testing, 2020

Book Review: Human Resources, Personnel, and Organizational Behavior: Training and Transfer of LearningTraining and Transfer of Learning. By AnalouiFarhad. Brookfield, Vt: Avebury, 1993. x, 167 pages. ISBN 1-85628-009-3. $59.95

Industrial & labor relations review, 1994

Pushback: negative career development experiences of United States post-tenure female faculty 1988–2011

Women, Business and Leadership, 2019

Book Review: Human Resources, Personnel, and Organizational Behavior: Training and Transfer of Learning

Industrial & Labor Relations Review, 1994

ATINER's Conference Paper Series CBC2014-1400

Specific Steps for Creating Outcomes Assessment Measures for an Undergraduate

The article recounts in detail the process used to include all department faculty members in the ... more The article recounts in detail the process used to include all department faculty members in the design of outcomes assessment measures for the management major, basing these on broad learning outcomes which the department had previously identified. While other literature has described the outcomes assessment design process in broad terms, the current article relates specific steps used to produce test questions. The article incorporates theory from the outcomes assessment, HRD, and the organizational behavior literatures.

Toward a Unified Theory of the Relationship between Training Methods and Factors of Cognitive Ability

The paper proposes a theory that trainees have varying ability levels across different factors of... more The paper proposes a theory that trainees have varying ability levels across different factors of cognitive ability, and that these abilities are used in varying levels by different training methods. The paper reviews characteristics of training methods and matches these characteristics to different factors of cognitive ability. The paper proposes that if organizations assign trainees to methods of training based on trainees’ cognitive ability profiles, then learning will be maximized.

Comparison of Student Learning Outcomes Assessment Practices Used Globally

ATHENS JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, 2015

Student learning outcomes assessment examines whether programs cover the material stated in their... more Student learning outcomes assessment examines whether programs cover the material stated in their learning goals, whether students are learning the material, and the impact on student retention, graduation, post-graduation outcomes, and institutional accreditation, with the aim of providing faculty with data that can be used to help programs evolve or improve. While there is a plethora of research regarding effective methods of assessment used in the United States, little has been written regarding cross-national comparisons of assessment methodologies. This paper examines the current state of assessment in several nations and regions, and draws parallels in practices across countries. Countries and regions examined include: Africa, Australia; New Zealand; Canada; the United Kingdom; Asia; Europe; and the Middle East. A literature search using the term "outcomes assessment" yielded 228 articles, of which, only 35 described practices outside the United States. Generally, searches on the terms "outcomes assessment" and "global" tend to return studies of outcomes assessment of teaching about global issues as it is practiced in the United States, rather than results about outcomes assessment practices used in other countries. This paper closes that knowledge gap.

Increased Workforce Diversity by Race, Gender, and Age and Equal Employment Opportunity Laws

Handbook of Research on Race, Gender, and the Fight for Equality

This chapter reviews how the passage of United States federal Equal Employment Opportunity laws b... more This chapter reviews how the passage of United States federal Equal Employment Opportunity laws between 1960 and 2000 related to race, gender, age, and national origin led to increased diversity of the labor force in gender, race, and ethnicity, an increase which is ongoing. Data from the U.S. Departments of Labor and Census indicate these laws substantially increased the percentage of Black, Hispanic and Asian and female workers. Between 2003 and 2013, the percentage of the labor force that is women, Black, Hispanic and Asian continued to increase, with the largest gains being of Hispanic and Asian employees. The chapter demonstrates how utilizing diversity improves the research and practice of HRD. This increasing diversity requires practitioners to rethink the methods they use to deliver training and development programs. Further, researchers should examine how the increased diversity impacts all areas of HRD, such as training, mentoring, and work-life balance.

Doctoral Programs Outcomes Assessment: An Approach to Assessing Program Inputs, Learning Objectives, and Postgraduation Outcomes

Journal of Assessment and Institutional Effectiveness, 2015

Student learning outcomes assessment is conducted at the undergraduate level for academic departm... more Student learning outcomes assessment is conducted at the undergraduate level for academic departments to determine whether students are meeting learning goals. The assessments do not include course grades; rather, they include measures such as standardized tests or student coursework being rated outside the course by committees. Increasingly, there has been a movement to conduct outcomes assessment on graduate programs as well. This article presents an assessment methodology that can be applied to the special conditions of doctoral programs, which are generally structured very differently than undergraduate and masters’ level programs, and which therefore require different methods of outcomes assessment.

Reexamining the temporal aspects of affect: relationships between repeatedly measured affective state, subjective well-being, and affective disposition

Personality and Individual Differences, 2004

Research that includes measures of affect has often used measures of affective state, subjective ... more Research that includes measures of affect has often used measures of affective state, subjective wellbeing, and affective disposition interchangeably. The present study examined the relationships between three widely-used measures of these constructs. Examination of coefficient alpha and test-retest reliabilities indicated that there are temporal differences between the constructs. Confirmatory factor analysis models indicated that affective state correlates with subjective well-being, which in turn correlates with affective disposition. Results indicate that the constructs are related but not equivalent, and that researchers should ensure they use the most valid instrument for the construct they wish to measure.

The growth of supply and demand of occupational-based training and certification in the United States, 1990-2003

Human Resource Development Quarterly, 2005

The 1990s and early 2000s saw the increased development of advanced training, skills standards, a... more The 1990s and early 2000s saw the increased development of advanced training, skills standards, and certification exams by private organizations in the United States. Employers began accepting these skill certifications in lieu of traditional on-the-job training, thereby encouraging employees to acquire more credentials. This article examines the increase in the number of skill certifications available, discusses legislative causes of these increases, and notes the current lack of published peer-reviewed analyses of statistical reliability and validity of certification exams. It presents a call for future research to determine the usefulness of certification. During the 1990s, the industrial shift away from manufacturing and toward service in the United States, especially the expansion of the software and hardware fields, led employers to increase demand for highly skilled employees. Concurrently, private organizations rapidly increased the number and types of skill certifications available. These certifications are skill based (rather than theory based) and generally take less than one year to complete. Although there seems to have been an exponential growth in the number of certifications available and in the number of people certified, there has been no systematic tracking of these increases . If employers are relying more on certification, then they may decrease their number of in-house training and development employees while certification organizations increase their number of trainers. The increase in certification would not, however, eliminate an organization' s need for in-house trainers; rather, it changes their focus. The classic model of training defined four outcomes: reaction, learning, behavior, and results (Kirkpatrick, 1988). Trainers must become performance consultants and begin to segue away from a focus on learning to a focus on behavior-how to teach trainees to transfer learning

Matching training methods and factors of cognitive ability: A means to improve training outcomes

Human Resource Development Quarterly, 2002

The Worsening Shortage of College-Graduate Workers

Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 1991

The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) projections of occupational employment growth have consisten... more The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) projections of occupational employment growth have consistently underpredicted the growth of skilled occupations. BLS currently projects that professional, technical, and managerial jobs will account for 44.5% of employment growth between 1988 and 2000, while we project they will account for 70% of employment growth. Between March 1988 and March 1991 these occupations, in fact, accounted for 87% of employment growth. The BLS’s projections of the supply/demand balance for college graduates have also been off the mark—predicting a surplus for the 1980s when, in fact, a shortage developed, and relative wage ratios for college graduates rose to all-time highs. We project that the supply of college educated workers will grow more slowly during the 1990s and that there will be a continuing escalation of wage premiums for college graduates.

Toward a Unified Theory of the Relationship between Training Methods and Factors of Cognitive Ability

Online Submission, 2008

The paper proposes a theory that trainees have varying ability levels across different factors of... more

Toward a Unified Theory of the Relationship between Training Methods and Factors of Cognitive Ability

The paper proposes a theory that trainees have varying ability levels across different factors of... more The paper proposes a theory that trainees have varying ability levels across different factors of cognitive ability, and that these abilities are used in varying levels by different training methods. The paper reviews characteristics of training methods and matches these characteristics to different factors of cognitive ability. The paper proposes that if organizations assign trainees to methods of training based on trainees' cognitive ability profiles, then learning will be maximized.

Association for Institutional Research Enhancing knowledge. Expanding networks. Professional Development, Informational Resources & Networking

This paper reports the process experienced by faculty in a School of Education as they developed,... more

Business Environment, Employee Characteristics, and Productivity: Long-Term Effects of Deregulation on the Freight Railroad Industry from 1982 to 2018.

Eastern Economics Association, Boston, MA. , 2020

Test review of "Work Self-Efficacy Inventory (The),”

The Twenty-First Mental Measurements Yearbook. Lincoln, Nebraska: Buros Center for Testing., 2020

Test review of "Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test-Second Edition,”

The Twenty-First Mental Measurements Yearbook. Lincoln, Nebraska: Buros Center for Testing., 2020

Case Study of use of the Mental Measurements Yearbook for a Graduate Course – Industrial/Organizational Psychology

MMY Instructional Modules. Lincoln, Nebraska: Buros Center for Testing, 2020

Book Review: Human Resources, Personnel, and Organizational Behavior: Training and Transfer of LearningTraining and Transfer of Learning. By AnalouiFarhad. Brookfield, Vt: Avebury, 1993. x, 167 pages. ISBN 1-85628-009-3. $59.95

Industrial & labor relations review, 1994

Pushback: negative career development experiences of United States post-tenure female faculty 1988–2011

Women, Business and Leadership, 2019

Book Review: Human Resources, Personnel, and Organizational Behavior: Training and Transfer of Learning

Industrial & Labor Relations Review, 1994

ATINER's Conference Paper Series CBC2014-1400

Specific Steps for Creating Outcomes Assessment Measures for an Undergraduate

The article recounts in detail the process used to include all department faculty members in the ... more The article recounts in detail the process used to include all department faculty members in the design of outcomes assessment measures for the management major, basing these on broad learning outcomes which the department had previously identified. While other literature has described the outcomes assessment design process in broad terms, the current article relates specific steps used to produce test questions. The article incorporates theory from the outcomes assessment, HRD, and the organizational behavior literatures.

Toward a Unified Theory of the Relationship between Training Methods and Factors of Cognitive Ability

The paper proposes a theory that trainees have varying ability levels across different factors of... more The paper proposes a theory that trainees have varying ability levels across different factors of cognitive ability, and that these abilities are used in varying levels by different training methods. The paper reviews characteristics of training methods and matches these characteristics to different factors of cognitive ability. The paper proposes that if organizations assign trainees to methods of training based on trainees’ cognitive ability profiles, then learning will be maximized.

Comparison of Student Learning Outcomes Assessment Practices Used Globally

ATHENS JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, 2015

Student learning outcomes assessment examines whether programs cover the material stated in their... more Student learning outcomes assessment examines whether programs cover the material stated in their learning goals, whether students are learning the material, and the impact on student retention, graduation, post-graduation outcomes, and institutional accreditation, with the aim of providing faculty with data that can be used to help programs evolve or improve. While there is a plethora of research regarding effective methods of assessment used in the United States, little has been written regarding cross-national comparisons of assessment methodologies. This paper examines the current state of assessment in several nations and regions, and draws parallels in practices across countries. Countries and regions examined include: Africa, Australia; New Zealand; Canada; the United Kingdom; Asia; Europe; and the Middle East. A literature search using the term "outcomes assessment" yielded 228 articles, of which, only 35 described practices outside the United States. Generally, searches on the terms "outcomes assessment" and "global" tend to return studies of outcomes assessment of teaching about global issues as it is practiced in the United States, rather than results about outcomes assessment practices used in other countries. This paper closes that knowledge gap.

Increased Workforce Diversity by Race, Gender, and Age and Equal Employment Opportunity Laws

Handbook of Research on Race, Gender, and the Fight for Equality

This chapter reviews how the passage of United States federal Equal Employment Opportunity laws b... more This chapter reviews how the passage of United States federal Equal Employment Opportunity laws between 1960 and 2000 related to race, gender, age, and national origin led to increased diversity of the labor force in gender, race, and ethnicity, an increase which is ongoing. Data from the U.S. Departments of Labor and Census indicate these laws substantially increased the percentage of Black, Hispanic and Asian and female workers. Between 2003 and 2013, the percentage of the labor force that is women, Black, Hispanic and Asian continued to increase, with the largest gains being of Hispanic and Asian employees. The chapter demonstrates how utilizing diversity improves the research and practice of HRD. This increasing diversity requires practitioners to rethink the methods they use to deliver training and development programs. Further, researchers should examine how the increased diversity impacts all areas of HRD, such as training, mentoring, and work-life balance.

Doctoral Programs Outcomes Assessment: An Approach to Assessing Program Inputs, Learning Objectives, and Postgraduation Outcomes

Journal of Assessment and Institutional Effectiveness, 2015

Student learning outcomes assessment is conducted at the undergraduate level for academic departm... more Student learning outcomes assessment is conducted at the undergraduate level for academic departments to determine whether students are meeting learning goals. The assessments do not include course grades; rather, they include measures such as standardized tests or student coursework being rated outside the course by committees. Increasingly, there has been a movement to conduct outcomes assessment on graduate programs as well. This article presents an assessment methodology that can be applied to the special conditions of doctoral programs, which are generally structured very differently than undergraduate and masters’ level programs, and which therefore require different methods of outcomes assessment.

Reexamining the temporal aspects of affect: relationships between repeatedly measured affective state, subjective well-being, and affective disposition

Personality and Individual Differences, 2004

Research that includes measures of affect has often used measures of affective state, subjective ... more Research that includes measures of affect has often used measures of affective state, subjective wellbeing, and affective disposition interchangeably. The present study examined the relationships between three widely-used measures of these constructs. Examination of coefficient alpha and test-retest reliabilities indicated that there are temporal differences between the constructs. Confirmatory factor analysis models indicated that affective state correlates with subjective well-being, which in turn correlates with affective disposition. Results indicate that the constructs are related but not equivalent, and that researchers should ensure they use the most valid instrument for the construct they wish to measure.

The growth of supply and demand of occupational-based training and certification in the United States, 1990-2003

Human Resource Development Quarterly, 2005

The 1990s and early 2000s saw the increased development of advanced training, skills standards, a... more The 1990s and early 2000s saw the increased development of advanced training, skills standards, and certification exams by private organizations in the United States. Employers began accepting these skill certifications in lieu of traditional on-the-job training, thereby encouraging employees to acquire more credentials. This article examines the increase in the number of skill certifications available, discusses legislative causes of these increases, and notes the current lack of published peer-reviewed analyses of statistical reliability and validity of certification exams. It presents a call for future research to determine the usefulness of certification. During the 1990s, the industrial shift away from manufacturing and toward service in the United States, especially the expansion of the software and hardware fields, led employers to increase demand for highly skilled employees. Concurrently, private organizations rapidly increased the number and types of skill certifications available. These certifications are skill based (rather than theory based) and generally take less than one year to complete. Although there seems to have been an exponential growth in the number of certifications available and in the number of people certified, there has been no systematic tracking of these increases . If employers are relying more on certification, then they may decrease their number of in-house training and development employees while certification organizations increase their number of trainers. The increase in certification would not, however, eliminate an organization' s need for in-house trainers; rather, it changes their focus. The classic model of training defined four outcomes: reaction, learning, behavior, and results (Kirkpatrick, 1988). Trainers must become performance consultants and begin to segue away from a focus on learning to a focus on behavior-how to teach trainees to transfer learning

Matching training methods and factors of cognitive ability: A means to improve training outcomes

Human Resource Development Quarterly, 2002

The Worsening Shortage of College-Graduate Workers

Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 1991

The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) projections of occupational employment growth have consisten... more The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) projections of occupational employment growth have consistently underpredicted the growth of skilled occupations. BLS currently projects that professional, technical, and managerial jobs will account for 44.5% of employment growth between 1988 and 2000, while we project they will account for 70% of employment growth. Between March 1988 and March 1991 these occupations, in fact, accounted for 87% of employment growth. The BLS’s projections of the supply/demand balance for college graduates have also been off the mark—predicting a surplus for the 1980s when, in fact, a shortage developed, and relative wage ratios for college graduates rose to all-time highs. We project that the supply of college educated workers will grow more slowly during the 1990s and that there will be a continuing escalation of wage premiums for college graduates.

Toward a Unified Theory of the Relationship between Training Methods and Factors of Cognitive Ability

Online Submission, 2008

The paper proposes a theory that trainees have varying ability levels across different factors of... more