Papers by Ebrahim Azadegan
Eco-Imagination towards a Sustainable Future, Islamic Philosophy and Occidental Phenomenology in Dialogue, 2024
About 150 years ago, two famous Iranian mystic and jurisprudent Najaf seminary people debated the... more About 150 years ago, two famous Iranian mystic and jurisprudent Najaf seminary people debated the interpretation of one of the poems of Attar Nishabouri. In this chapter, we try to outline the key points of the dispute between these two Hercules of contemporary Islamic mysticism and then try to extract out of this debate a conception of the relation between the unity of God and the manifold and plurality in His creatures to introduce a type of symbiotic perspective of a man-God relationship. To explain the social and even political role of human beings in the journey toward the ethical community, we appeal to the metaphor of the mystical journey from thirty birds [si murgh] toward unified Simurgh. If every person in society does her role perfectly, they will reach the Qaaf of a good and unified society.
New Voices on Women in the History of Philosophy, 2024
This paper confirms a longstanding feminist critique that the belief in God's sovereignty, unders... more This paper confirms a longstanding feminist critique that the belief in God's sovereignty, understood as His having supreme authority over all creatures and controlling them according to His own will, has served to bolster the non-egalitarian and sexist political order of our world, since a sovereign ruler can easily claim that his model of government is in accordance with and conforms to the model of divine sovereignty. Feminist theology, by criticizing this conception of divine sovereignty, proposes a reconciliatory resolution between theology and a nonsexist non-paternalist socio-political order, whereas the lack of this sort of reconciliatory resolution leads to tragedy. Focusing on Sophocles' Antigone, in this paper I read Antigone's deed as a feminist critique of the sexist/racist political order of her day interpreted through her feminist theology. I conclude that if we see God's power and sovereignty as bestowing freedom and love, as from Antigone's feminist perspective it does, then the divine law of love and mercy and the human law of the nonsexist polis can be reconciled.
Open Theology, 2024
This article argues in favor of Open conception of divinity and theology in Islam. In Section 1, ... more This article argues in favor of Open conception of divinity and theology in Islam. In Section 1, I explain the main textual difference between traditional transcendent conception of divinity and the open conception. Then, I will demonstrate the essential elements of this theology according to the various interpretations of the texts. I will then introduce a different meaning of God's power as freedom bestowment. Next, I will argue that open theology can be supported rationally through its capability to dissolve some philosophical concerns of theism. It will be concluded that since in the modern era, human beings have changed their position in the world consciously, this change in the position of the man-world state definitely affects our epistemic position toward God, which is our theology. Nowadays, after challenging the sociopolitical paternalistic hierarchy of the world, we become more ready to understand the immanence, nearness, and love of God instead of seeing Him as the almighty King who governs the world from an eternal and too transcendent position. In my view, Open theology could be a fruitful avenue for Islamic theology to pursue as it seeks to answer the emerging questions concerning Man-God relationship in our modern world.
International journal for philosophy of religion, Feb 7, 2024
We argue that there is an incompatibility between the two basic principles of Molinism, i.e., God... more We argue that there is an incompatibility between the two basic principles of Molinism, i.e., God's middle knowledge of counterfactuals of creaturely freedom, and divine immutability. To this end, firstly, we set out the difference between strong and weak immutability: according to the latter only God's essential attributes remain unchanged, while the former affirms that God cannot change in any way. Our next step is to argue that Molinism ascribes strong immutability to God. However, according to Molinism, some counterfactuals of freedom need to be actualized by divine will. We argue that this claim does entail a change in God because it attributes a knowledge to God that involves moving from possibility to actuality through divine will. Therefore, claiming God knows counterfactuals of freedom leads us to reject the strong sense of divine immutability. Further, we argue that assuming God's knowledge encompasses counterfactuals of freedom cannot be consistent even with weak immutability because, according to Molinism, a change in God's knowledge requires a change in His essence. We conclude that Molinism is incoherent.
Open Theology, 2024
This article argues in favor of Open conception of divinity and theology in Islam. In Section 1, ... more This article argues in favor of Open conception of divinity and theology in Islam. In Section 1, I explain the main textual difference between traditional transcendent conception of divinity and the open conception. Then, I will demonstrate the essential elements of this theology according to the various interpretations of the texts. I will then introduce a different meaning of God's power as freedom bestowment. Next, I will argue that open theology can be supported rationally through its capability to dissolve some philosophical concerns of theism. It will be concluded that since in the modern era, human beings have changed their position in the world consciously, this change in the position of the man-world state definitely affects our epistemic position toward God, which is our theology. Nowadays, after challenging the sociopolitical paternalistic hierarchy of the world, we become more ready to understand the immanence, nearness, and love of God instead of seeing Him as the almighty King who governs the world from an eternal and too transcendent position. In my view, Open theology could be a fruitful avenue for Islamic theology to pursue as it seeks to answer the emerging questions concerning Man-God relationship in our modern world.
The paper aims at demonstrating Leibnitzian idea that everything that exists is necessarily exist... more The paper aims at demonstrating Leibnitzian idea that everything that exists is necessarily exists. The author examines very well Leibnitz's argument in favor of this claim and tries to defend the claim against main objections. One of the interesting points of the paper for me was the introducing the notion of moral necessity in contrast to metaphysical, logical and nomological necessities which are more familiar notions in contemporary metaphysics. The author claims that Leibnitz's Master argument goes as follows: "According to Leibniz, given the existence of God-that is, the existence of
Zygon, Feb 12, 2015
In this review, I present eight books recently produced by the Copernicus Center in Kraków. These... more In this review, I present eight books recently produced by the Copernicus Center in Kraków. These eight are not their full production, as the website of their publishing venture, http://en.ccpress.pl/, testifies. The Copernicus Center is an interdisciplinary collaboration of philosophers, theologians, scientists, and lawyers. Of these, Michael Heller, cosmologist and mathematician, philosopher and priest, winner of the Templeton Prize in 2008, is the most well-known among readers of Zygon, I assume. This extraordinarily fertile group represents a very coherent program that has deep roots in the intellectual culture of Kraków, as described in a very readable contribution by Bartosz Brożek and Michael Heller in this issue of Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science. A characteristic title in their program is Between Philosophy and Science. The authors analyze in depth philosophical issues informed by science, and scientific developments that are also philosophical in kind. In this volume, Robert Audi clarifies scientific and methodological naturalism, and with such a naturalism the possibility of ontological pluralism. Roman Murawski, Krzysztof Wójtowic, and Bartosz Brożek each consider issues related to the nature of mathematics and logic. Michael Heller and Wojciech P. Grygiel reflect on quantum gravity and ontology at the Planck scale, and Helge Kragh and Bogdan Dembiński consider philosophy of science in historical and Platonic perspective. Wojciech Załuski and Łukasz Kurek focus on the human, with evolutionary anthropology and neurophilosophy, while
International journal for photography of religion , 2024
We argue that there is an incompatibility between the two basic principles of Molinism, i.e., God... more We argue that there is an incompatibility between the two basic principles of Molinism, i.e., God's middle knowledge of counterfactuals of creaturely freedom, and divine immutability. To this end, firstly, we set out the difference between strong and weak immutability: according to the latter only God's essential attributes remain unchanged, while the former affirms that God cannot change in any way. Our next step is to argue that Molinism ascribes strong immutability to God. However, according to Molinism, some counterfactuals of freedom need to be actualized by divine will. We argue that this claim does entail a change in God because it attributes a knowledge to God that involves moving from possibility to actuality through divine will. Therefore, claiming God knows counterfactuals of freedom leads us to reject the strong sense of divine immutability. Further, we argue that assuming God's knowledge encompasses counterfactuals of freedom cannot be consistent even with weak immutability because, according to Molinism, a change in God's knowledge requires a change in His essence. We conclude that Molinism is incoherent.
One of the well-known philosophers and religious scholars in contemporary Iran definitely is Abdu... more One of the well-known philosophers and religious scholars in contemporary Iran definitely is Abdulkarim Soroush who is famous for religious intellectualism, anti-religious exclusivism and Rumi's scholarship. Recently he has demonstrated a turn in his ideas regarding the character and personality of the prophet Muhammad and, being based on some historical facts, events and hadiths, which mostly have been accepted during the history of Islam by the majority of Muslim society and even jurisprudents, tried to argue that the prophet is an authoritarian. This turn is very important since for most religious intellectuals in Iran the prophet is a symbol of an interpretation of religion of mercy, which they believe is the essence of Islam that after the prophet has been deformed and defiled. In this paper, I shall examine Soroush's claims and try to show that his understanding of the personality of the prophet is based on a common though improper theological point of view about the nature of divine attributes. Accordingly, I shall conclude that if we open our theological point of view we can endorse a libertarian reading of Islam as a religion of mercy.
Philosophy East and West, 2023
From the Qur'an, Surah Maryam: (21) So she conceived him, and went in seclusion with him to a rem... more From the Qur'an, Surah Maryam: (21) So she conceived him, and went in seclusion with him to a remote place. (22) And the pains of childbirth drove her to the trunk of a palm tree: she cried (in her anguish): "Ah! would that I had died before this! Would that I had been a thing forgotten and out of sight!" (23) But (a voice) cried to her from beneath the (palm tree): "Grieve not! for thy Lord hath provided a rivulet beneath thee;" (24) "And shake towards thyself the trunk of the palm tree: it will let fall fresh ripe dates upon thee." (25) "So eat and drink and cool (thine) eye. And if thou dost see any man say 'I have vowed a fast to (Allah) Most Gracious, and this day will I enter into no talk with any human being.'"
The Heythrop Journal, Jun 14, 2019
If the world has been fine-tuned for human life, why does that life encompass such calamity and s... more If the world has been fine-tuned for human life, why does that life encompass such calamity and suffering? It seems that in so far as we are impressed by the fine-tuning intuition that the world has been designed for human life, the problem of natural evil gains in urgency. I propose that observing the world from the anthropic point of view is the source of theists' challenge which arises from this tension. Dealing with this challenge I suggest perhaps the world is fine-tuned for God's telos, which may be His manifestation of love through sentient beings' pains and emotions.
The Heythrop Journal, Aug 2, 2017
Kahane introduces two versions of antitheism: impersonal and personal. I deny that impersonal ant... more Kahane introduces two versions of antitheism: impersonal and personal. I deny that impersonal antitheism can be cogently defended, but I accept that the meaningful life argument in favour of personal antitheism is sound. I then argue that the personal form of antitheism reduces to a form of gratuitous evil. Subsequently, I show that instead of denying the existence of gratuitous evil by approving sceptical theism, one can accept the existence of gratuitous evil and show that this sort of evil provides for a special sort of goodness. In line with this, I demonstrate that the existence of personal antitheists makes the world a more valuable place than a Godless world free of antitheists would be. The conclusion is that even for antitheists the existence of God is valuable, because they can thereby find a new meaning for their lives.
Religious Studies, Oct 27, 2020
Affirming that divine knowledge of occurrent changes among particulars is incompatible with the d... more Affirming that divine knowledge of occurrent changes among particulars is incompatible with the doctrine of divine immutability, this article seeks to resolve this tension by denying the latter. Reviewing this long-running debate, I first formalize the exchange between al-Ghazālī and Avicenna on this topic, and then set out the ways in which contemporary Sadrāean philosophers have tried to resolve the incompatibility. I argue that none of the cited Sadrāean attempts to resolve the incompatibility between divine omniscience and immutability is successful. Then, by reference to certain principles drawn from Shia theology, I indicate how one might seek to reject the dogma of divine immutability. I conclude that by emancipating ourselves from that dogma, new horizons could be opened for Islamic philosophy, free from traditional Hellenistic constraints.
HEKMAT VA FALSAFEH (WISDOM AND PHILOSOPHY), 2018
Journal of Business Ethics, May 2, 2018
ASIATICA: Труды по философии и культурам Востока, 2021
One of the well-known philosophers and religious scholars in contemporary Iran definitely is Abdu... more One of the well-known philosophers and religious scholars in contemporary Iran definitely is Abdulkarim Soroush who is famous for religious intellectualism, anti-religious exclusivism and Rumi's scholarship. Recently he has demonstrated a turn in his ideas regarding the character and personality of the prophet Muhammad and, being based on some historical facts, events and hadiths, which mostly have been accepted during the history of Islam by the majority of Muslim society and even jurisprudents, tried to argue that the prophet is an authoritarian. This turn is very important since for most religious intellectuals in Iran the prophet is a symbol of an interpretation of religion of mercy, which they believe is the essence of Islam that after the prophet has been deformed and defiled. In this paper, I shall examine Soroush's claims and try to show that his understanding of the personality of the prophet is based on a common though improper theological point of view about the nature of divine attributes. Accordingly, I shall conclude that if we open our theological point of view we can endorse a libertarian reading of Islam as a religion of mercy.
پژوهشنامه فلسفه دین, 2021
در پاسخ به مسئلۀ ناسازگاری میان مشیت مطلق الهی و آزادی مخلوقات، مولینیزم نظریه علم میانی را مطرح... more در پاسخ به مسئلۀ ناسازگاری میان مشیت مطلق الهی و آزادی مخلوقات، مولینیزم نظریه علم میانی را مطرح میکند، نظریهای که با فرض علم خداوند به شرطیهای خالف واقعِ آزادی ادعا میکند که میتوان بدون حذف یکی از طرفین )مشیت یا آزادی( مسئله فوق را حل نمود. بدین نحو که خداوند با علم به این شرطیها و بالفعل کردن مقدم آنها میداند که مخلوقات، آزادانه چه فعلی را محقق خواهند کرد. لذا بدین طریق هم آزادی مخلوقات حفظ میگردد و هم مشیت خداوند که عبارت است از علم پیشین و کنترل او بر افعال مخلوقات. نوشتۀ پیش رو سعی دارد نشان دهد از آنجا که عدم تغییرپذیری خداوند یکی از مفروضات اصلی مولینیزم است، لذا این دیدگاه نمیتواند صفت اراده را به خداوند نسبت دهد، زیرا صفت اراده برای مولینیزم امری است دوسویه که مستلزم حرکت از امکان به سمت فعلیت است و این امر معنایی جز پذیرش تغییر در ذات الهی ندارد. در پایان استدالل خواهیم کرد که چون معلومات شرطی نیازمند بالفعل شدن توسط اراده الهی هستند، در نتیجه طرح شرطیهای خالف واقع در داخل علم الهی طرحی ناموفق است و بحث پیرامون صدقِ آن کمک شایانی در حل مسئله فوق نمیکند
Vestnik of Saint Petersburg University. Philosophy and Conflict Studies
It is often assumed that there is a confrontation between science and Islam, especially in religi... more It is often assumed that there is a confrontation between science and Islam, especially in religious communities. Biological evolution is often one of the constant sources of contention due to its metaphysical implications. Although there are some empirical data showing low acceptance of evolution and understanding its basic principles in Sunni-majority countries, there has been a categorical lack of data about Iran as the most influential Shiite-majority state. Therefore, in order to reach a better understanding of the culture and world-view of Iranians, we implemented two established questionnaires and phone interviews to assess educated Iranians’ attitude toward evolution. We reach an important conclusion, which is supported by extensive quantitative data obtained from two separate questionnaires, that most Iranians accept both underlying principles as well as controversial topics such as human evolution in a striking rate. Additionally, key concepts of evolution were greatly und...
Vestnik of Saint Petersburg University, 2022
It is often assumed that there is a confrontation between science and Islam, especially in religi... more It is often assumed that there is a confrontation between science and Islam, especially in religious communities. Biological evolution is often one of the constant sources of contention due to its metaphysical implications. Although there are some empirical data showing low acceptance of evolution and understanding its basic principles in Sunni-majority countries, there has been a categorical lack of data about Iran as the most influential Shiite-majority state. Therefore, in order to reach a better understanding of the culture and world-view of Iranians, we implemented two established questionnaires and phone interviews to assess educated Iranians' attitude toward evolution. We reach an important conclusion, which is supported by extensive quantitative data obtained from two separate questionnaires, that most Iranians accept both underlying principles as well as controversial topics such as human evolution in a striking rate. Additionally, key concepts of evolution were greatly understood by a large fraction of our participants. Finally, the research exhibited that Iranians did not consider evolution and their religious belief system as two rival systems, regardless of identifying themselves as religious or non-religious individuals. To investigate the reason for this cultural phenomenon that is unique among major Islamic countries, we suggest that it is due to three reasons. Central national education system implementing evolutionary science at both high school and university levels, explosive accessibility of academic atmosphere for the public, and more science-friendly interpretation of Islam are thought to be responsible factors for such a high level of acceptance and understanding. This study has crucial implications for revisiting the nature of Science-Islam interaction among various Muslim communities, Shiite Iranians included.
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Papers by Ebrahim Azadegan
Kantian philosophy has breathed new life into business ethics
discourse. Several papers both for and against Kantian
business ethics—and responding to Bowie’s noteworthy
account in particular—have been published. Bowie has
revised some of his ideas and arguments in the light of these
current debates in Kantian business ethics, yet his devotion
to capitalism remains. This review does not focus on the differences
between two editions but rather concentrates on his
“latest thoughts on Kantian business ethics” (x).