Papers by Jesper Simonsen
Proceedings of the 16th biennial Conference on Participatory Design, PDC’2020, June 15-19, Manizales, Colombia: Participation(s) otherwise, 2020
In its promise to contribute to considerable cost savings and improved patient care through effic... more In its promise to contribute to considerable cost savings and improved patient care through efficient analysis of the tremendous amount of data stored in electronic health records (EHR), there is currently a strong push for the proliferation of artificial intelligence (AI) in health-care. We identify, through a study of AI being used to predict patient no-show's, that for the AI to gain full potential there lies a need to balance the introduction of AI with a proper focus on the patients and the clinicians' interests. We call for a Participatory Design (PD) approach to understand and reconfigure the socio-technical setup in health-care, especially where AI is being used on EHR data that are manually being submitted by health-care personnel. CCS Concepts: • Human-centered computing → Participatory design; Empirical studies in collaborative and social computing.
Scandinavian Journal of Information Systems, Vol. 34: Iss. 1, Article 2. Available at: https://aisel.aisnet.org/sjis/vol34/iss1/2, 2022
Abstract. Many opportunities for benefitting from information technology (IT) are not discovered ... more Abstract. Many opportunities for benefitting from information technology (IT) are not discovered until IT systems are in operational use. The realization of these benefits de- pends on local efforts that cannot presume top-management support but must themselves generate the innovation potential necessary to improve system use. To facilitate such local efforts, we propose effects-driven IT improvement. It consists of iteratively specify- ing, realizing, and evaluating the usage effects pursued with a system. We describe the effects-driven process and illustrate it with three real-world cases. On this basis, we dis- cuss its contributions toward local benefits realization at the post-implementation stage. Our overarching contribution is to provide a means of operationalizing and packaging im- provement initiatives in a manner that combines local and lightweight experimentation with the data-driven realization of meaningful effects. The three cases illustrate that the effects-driven process can reopen the window of opportunity for benefits realization, re- sult in learning that calls for respecifying the pursued effect, and render evaluation data almost superfluous because the local actors are confident that the effect is substantial and real. In addition, local initiatives to improve system use may create the momentum, eval- uation infrastructure, and benefits documentation necessary to pave the way for further improvements. However, these potentials come with challenges, which we also discuss.
Key words: benefits management, effects-driven process, effects realization, IT improve- ment, local entrepreneurs, local innovation, post-implementation stage.
Journal of Problem Based Learning in Higher Education, 2022
This article investigates and exemplifies the personal side of our supervising skills. This is in... more This article investigates and exemplifies the personal side of our supervising skills. This is inspired from psychotherapeutic research specialized in investigating openminded contact and authentic meetings. The article is based on our experiences supervising project groups at Roskilde University. Supervision is sometimes a challenging task that may manifest and confront personally-related issues. We advocate combining an academic and personal approach to supervising project groups. We provide a range of empirical examples from the supervising project groups, illustrating the type of personal challenges we meet. These challenges are characterized and conceptualized, and some concrete ways to deal with them are proposed.
Computer Science, Roskilde University, Spring 1994, 1994
This is a note for the lecture on Work Analysis held on March 23, 1994 on Department of Computer ... more This is a note for the lecture on Work Analysis held on March 23, 1994 on Department of Computer Science, Roskilde University. It is based on the fol- lowing literature:
Schmidt, Kjeld: "A Dialectical Approach to Functional Analysis of Office Work", 1986 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics. October 14-17, 1986, Atlanta, Geordia.
Schmidt, Kjeld: "Function Analysis Instrument", in G. Schäfer et al. (ed.): Functional Analysis of Office Requirements: A Multiperspective Approach, Wiley, Chichester etc., UK, 1988, pp. 261-289.
Schmidt, Kjeld: Funktionsanalysemetoden. En indføring. [The Function Analysis Method. An Introduction], Arbejdsnotater #89-1, 2. udgave, Fagbevægelsens Center for Informationsteknologi, Søborg, Denmark, 1989.
Schmidt, Kjeld, and Peter Carstensen: Arbejdsanalyse, Teori og praksis,[Work Analysis, Theory and practice], Risø National Laboratory, (Risø-M-2889), Roskilde, Denmark, 1990.
Besides the literature it is based on meetings and discussions with Kjeld Schmidt and Peter Carstensen.
Stanford/CSLI – Xerox-PARC November 1993, 1993
I have recently conducted a larger action-oriented study in The Film Board in Denmark, with Finn ... more I have recently conducted a larger action-oriented study in The Film Board in Denmark, with Finn Kensing, as part of our MUST-project, in which the overall effort is to develop theories and methods for designers doing (early) design studies in an organizational context. Action-oriented research has unique benefits. The researchers have their own experiences to draw on; one has the possibility to test different conceptual frameworks and methods, etc. However there may be complications if this is the only research approach used. Even though the study in The Film Board takes place in an industrial setting, our contract on the site allowed research to be a main part of the activities. As a result the situation on which the study was based is somewhat "ideal" and "laboratory-like," excluding certain kinds of constraints. To address this problem I have undertaken a complementary case-study in which I observe a large-scale early design study within the administration of Stanford University. So, my primarily interest in this case is the "real-life" and "environmental" constraints out of the power and control of the designers in the team that I have observed, which my action-oriented study in The Film Board tend to ignore, due to the fact that we in this study could do pretty much what we wanted to.
Computer Science/Roskilde University, Spring 1994, 1994
This is a note for the lecture on Checkland's Soft System Methodology (SSM) held on March 29, 200... more This is a note for the lecture on Checkland's Soft System Methodology (SSM) held on March 29, 2000 on Department of Computer Science, Roskilde University. It is a short introduction to SSM based on two primary literature's,
- Checkland, Peter: Systems Thinking, Systems Practice. Chichester, West Sussex, UK, 1981, (referred to as SSM, 81), and
- Checkland, Peter, and Ji Scholes: Soft Systems Methodology in Action. Chichester, West Sussex, UK, 1990, (referred to as SSM, 90).
First some background for SSM is given followed by a description of SSM as described in (SSM, 81) and the revised SSM as described in (SSM, 90). SSM and the construction of Information Systems (IS) is briefly mentioned and, as a summary, a table of key concepts and techniques/guidelines is presented. Finally, the philosophy of SSM and the Work Analysis' critique of SSM is described.
Proceedings of the Participatory Design Conference. R. Trigg, S.l. Anderson, and E.A. Dykstra- Erickson (Eds.). Chapel Hill NC USA, 27-28 October 1994, 1994
In this paper we address how to do reliable systems design in small complex organizations-small i... more In this paper we address how to do reliable systems design in small complex organizations-small in the sense that the design project we use as an example has approximately 50 employees, and complex in the sense that the employees had very different roles and relationships. We use the term design in the same way as architects do-focusing on the analysis of needs and the preliminary design of functionality and form-in contrast to what is common within computer science, where the design term is borrowed from engineering-focusing on construction and implementation. Current approaches used in industry and published in literature (e.g. SA, SO, OOA, and 000) tend to ignore design as being a political endeavour also. Also they tend to neglect the potentials in participatory design, and/or they tend to homogenize users not being sensitive towards individual needs. Our approach is more in line with ongoing research within Participatory Design, in that we see results of a design project to include a conceptual design in terms of a written document, sketches, mock ups and/or prototypes. We consider an evaluation of individual and organizational consequences of implementing the design as well as a plan for the implementation to be part of the result. ' Ethnographic approaches to systems design has proved valuable, especially within highly specialized product development and research oriented design settings, reports on concrete consequences on a specific design due to such an approach seem scarce. We reflect upon an action research project carried out over a period of 1 112 years in a public organization in Northern Europe. We were called upon to conduct what ended up as 3 design projects. Having a design approach In PDC'94: 47 inspired by ethnography and intervention, we did in-depth analysis of current work practices, carried out unstructured interviews, observation, video recording, document analysis, and the like. We set up participatory analysis and design workshops. The organization is currently implementing our visions and design proposals. We are presenting the setting we have worked in, the establishment of the project, the activities we carried out in one of the design projects, and some consequences our approach had on the final design. All three design projects are documented in Simonsen, (1994). We conclude by discussing some of the organizational and technical effects the approach had on our design, as well as political dilemmas we got involved in. The setting presented here represents the application area of the design approach we are developing: computer support for complex administrative, managerial, and professional work. The management's attitude is probably important for the relations we seek to establish with the individuals and the organization. Management should state that the purpose of the design project is supporting the existing workforce in meeting current and new challenges rather than headcount reduction.
Writings on Computer Science No. 94, Computer Science Department, Roskilde University, Roskilde, Denmark., 1994
The paper present our first attempt to formulate a design approach based upon our experiences fro... more The paper present our first attempt to formulate a design approach based upon our experiences from nine design projects in various organizations. In the projects we have experimented with techniques for analyzing the needs of the organization in question and for supporting the design process. The term "approach" is used as something in between commodified methods and isolated techniques supporting one or a few activities.
Computer Science, Roskilde University, Spring 1994, 1994
This is a note for the lecture on Simons perspective held on March 11, 1994 on Department of Comp... more This is a note for the lecture on Simons perspective held on March 11, 1994 on Department of Computer Science, Roskilde University. It is based on the following literature:
Bakka, Jørgen Frode and Egil Fivesdal: Organisationsteori. Struktur, kultur, processer, [Organizational Theory. Structure, Culture, Processes], Nyt Nordisk Forlag, Arnold Busck, Denmark, 1986.
Højrup, Thomas: Lønkapital under folkestyre. ØD-planernes strukturfejl & deres ophævelse, [Capital from Wages Under Representative Government. The Plans for Economic Democracy, their Structural Shortcomings and How to Solve Them], EUCIS (European Center for International Security), Rosinante/Munksgaard, Denmark, 1989.
Simon, Herbert A.: The Sciences of the Artificial, The Massachusetts Institute of Technology, The Murray Printing Company, USA, 1969.
Simon, Herbert A.: "Applying Information Technology to Organizational Design", in Public Administration Review, Vol. 33, No. 3, May/June 1973, pp. 268-278.
Simon, Herbert A.: Administrative Behavior. A Study of Decision-Making Processes in Administrative Organization, Third Edition, The Free Press, Collier Macmillan Publishers, London, UK, 1976.
Proceedings of the Fourth Biennial Conference on Participatory Design, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, 13-15 November 1996, Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility, Palo Alto, CA, pp. 129-140., 1996
The paper presents a conceptual framework and a coherent method for design in an organizational c... more The paper presents a conceptual framework and a coherent method for design in an organizational context within the PD tradition. The MUST method has been developed throughout 10 projects in Danish and American organizations , and it has recently been evaluated, and adopted by IT professionals within a large Danish organization. The method is based on thorough participation with users and managers, and it combines the use of ethnographic techniques and intervention. The paper describes the application area and perspective of the MUST method, presents six general principles on which the method is based, and describes five main activities providing a stepwise decision making process in relation to the overall design process. The paper concludes with a brief comparison of the MUST method with other approaches and by summing up the main points.
Proceedings of the 4th European Conference on Information Systems, Lisbon/Portugal, July 2-4 1996, pp. 1153-1161., 1996
This paper presents a case study in the form of a contextual design project, the aim of which was... more This paper presents a case study in the form of a contextual design project, the aim of which was to design a system for a particular organization. The starting point in the case was a need in the organization for a specific system. The case involved an analysis of the organizations customer relations. Involving customer relations in the design project had a powerful effect: it was revealed that the system the organization believed they needed was irrelevant, while they needed another system nobody had thought of beforehand. The paper presents the case by describing the setting and starting point of the design project, how the project was conducted, and which results it ended up with. This is followed by a discussion of the effects of, and lessons learned by, involving customer relations in contextual design.
Communications of the ACM, Vol. 40, No. 7, July, pp. 82-88., 1997
Ethnography originates from anthropology where anthropologists spend extended periods of time wit... more Ethnography originates from anthropology where anthropologists spend extended periods of time with primitive societies making detailed observations of their practices.
In a design context the aim of ethnography is to develop a thorough understanding of current work practices as a basis for the design of computer support. A major point in ethnographically inspired approaches is that work is a socially organized activity where the actual behavior differs from how it is described by those who do it. This implies that detailed studies of work must include observations as well as interviews [for example 1, 4, 12]. Blomberg et al. [1] characterize ethnography with four principles and three main techniques: it takes place in natural settings; it is based on the principle of holism, that is, particular behaviors must be understood in the respective context; it develops descriptive understanding in contrast to prescriptive; it is grounded in a member's point-of-view. They use as main techniques observation, interview, and video analyses.
Using ethnography in the design of computer based systems has become increasingly prominent especially within the research communities of Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW), but also within Participatory Design (PD), and Human Computer Interaction (HCI).
Plowman et al. [9] have recently reviewed all studies using ethnography published within the CSCW literature. In this review, three issues (of particular concern to us) are raised. First, the dominant approach is sociologists conducting the ethnographic studies and informing computer scientists of their findings, such as in debriefing meetings [for example 5, 6]. Second, reports on concrete consequences of a specific design due to such an approach are typically absent. Third, a "need to consider developing hybrid and tailored forms of ethnography which can play different practical roles in the various phases of design" is argued [9 p. 321].
As computer scientists, we have adopted and experimented with ethnography in design [2, 10, 11]. We have developed a method for participatory design where ethnography is an embedded part of the overall design activities [8]. Participatory Design refers to an approach where users play an active part. Users and designers engage in mutual learning activities in order to understand users' current work and generate coherent visions for change [3].
We believe that practitioners can benefit from using ethnography in contextual design (particular when designing systems in a specific organizational context), but they must be aware of the conditions needed for such an approach.
This article presents a case from our research in the form of a design project for the Editorial Board of a Film Board (detailed in [10]). The project was conducted in two parts. Traditional techniques like meetings, interviews, document analysis, rich pictures, and mock-ups were used in Part One leading to a first design proposal. In Part Two, experiments with ethno-graphic techniques like observation and videorecording were applied and the effect was evaluated in light of the first design proposal.
Here, we present the organization and describe the Editorial Board design project. We spent approximately 14 person weeks over a period of 10 months on the project because it also served as a research project. Had it been a real life consulting job, our estimate would be approximately 10 person weeks.
Proceedings of the 5th European Conference on Information Systems, Cork/Ireland, June 19-21 1997, Cork Publishing Limited, pp. 1314-1327. (Recipient of the "Officers' Award for Excellence"), 1997
The paper discusses how designers, conducting design projects in specific organization's, can ass... more The paper discusses how designers, conducting design projects in specific organization's, can assure that the design of IT is appropriately linked to the organizations overall business strategy. A case study is presented in the form of a design project in a small public organization. Functional analysis was used as a means to clarify how a specific needed information system could support the organization's new business strategy. Using functional analysis in the design project had a powerful effect: it seriously challenged the organization's business strategy and revealed that the system the organization believed it needed was irrelevant, while it needed other systems nobody had thought of beforehand. Functional analysis is outlined, the results from using this analysis are described, and lessons to be learned are discussed. The paper concludes by pointing out the need for explicit attention to the relation between an organiza-tion's IT-projects and its business strategy and by suggesting that it is the responsibility of the designers, conducting design projects, to assure that this task is taken proper care of. Practical guidelines for this purpose are given.
in J. Hughes, J., W. Prinz, T. Rodden, and K. Schmidt, (Eds.): Proceedings of the Fifth European Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work, Lancaster University, UK, 7-11 September 1997, Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 329-344., 1997
We address computer support for work and its coordination in one of the radio channels of the Dan... more We address computer support for work and its coordination in one of the radio channels of the Danish Broadcasting Corporation. Based upon ethnographically inspired analysis and participatory design techniques, we propose design solutions now implemented or under implementation. We focus on cooperative aspects within and among the radio channel's editorial units, and between editorial units and the editorial board. Finally, we discuss technical and organisational aspects of the design, seen in light of recent CSCW concepts.
IRIS'21 (Information Systems Research Seminar in Scandinavia, Sæby, Denmark, 8-11 August), "Information Systems Research in Collaboration with Industry", Vol. 2, Department of Computer Science, Aalborg University, 1998, pp. 779-791, 1998
This paper introduces the term 'anchoring' within systems development: Visions, developed through... more This paper introduces the term 'anchoring' within systems development: Visions, developed through early systems design within an organization, need to be deeply rooted in the organization. A vision's rationale needs to be understood by those who decide if the vision should be implemented as well as by those involved in the actual implementation. A model depicting a recent trend within systems development is presented: Organizations rely on purchasing generic software products and/or software development outsourced to external contractors. A contemporary method for participatory design, where anchoring is considered to be a main activity, is outlined. The task of anchoring visions is described, and techniques and activities are suggested with respect to those actors that have to act on the visions and the recommendations from a design proposal. The paper concludes that obtaining appropriate anchoring requires designers to take on a role compared to that of an architect.
Computer Supported Cooperative Work 7: 243–271, 1998., 1998
We address design of computer support for work and its coordination at the Danish Broadcasting Co... more We address design of computer support for work and its coordination at the Danish Broadcasting Corporation. We propose design solutions based upon participatory design techniques and ethnographically inspired analysis within a full scale design project. The project exemplifies an ambitious, yet realistic, design practice, that provides a sound basis for organisational decision making and for technical and organizational development and implementation. We focus on cooperative aspects within and among the editorial units, and between editorial units and the editorial board. We discuss technical and organisational aspects of the design, seen in light of recent CSCW concepts, including coordination and computational coordination mechanisms, technologies of accountability, and workflow from within and without.
Human-Computer Interaction, Vol. 13, No. 2, 1998, pp. 167-198., 1998
The article presents a conceptual framework and a coherent method for design in an organizational... more The article presents a conceptual framework and a coherent method for design in an organizational context within the participatory design tradition. The MUST method has been developed throughout 10 projects in Danish and American organizations, and it has recently been evaluated and adopted by 3 Danish organizations. The method is based on thorough participation with users and managers, and it combines the use of ethnographic techniques and intervention. The article describes the application area and perspective of the method, presents 6 general principles on which the method is based, and describes 5 main activities providing a stepwise decision-making process in the overall design process. Each of the main activities are illustrated by an example taken from our last project. The article concludes by summing up the main points.
The article presents a conceptual framework and a coherent method for design in an organizational... more The article presents a conceptual framework and a coherent method for design in an organizational context within the participatory design tradition. The MUST method has been developed throughout 10 projects in Danish and American organizations, and it has recently been evaluated and adopted by 3 Danish organizations. The method is based on thorough participation with users and managers, and it combines the use of ethnographic techniques and intervention. The article describes the application area and perspective of the method, presents 6 general principles on which the method is based, and describes 5 main activities providing a stepwise decision-making process in the overall design process. Each of the main activities are illustrated by an example taken from our last project. The article concludes by summing up the main points.
ACM-SIGDOC Journal of Computer Documentation, Vol. 22, No. 1, February, pp. 20-30., 1998
Cultural analysis, especially in its ethnographic form/variant, has been applied for some years n... more Cultural analysis, especially in its ethnographic form/variant, has been applied for some years now within the Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW), the Human Computer Interaction (HCI), and the Participa-tory Design (PD) communities. These communities attract academics and practitioners who are concerned about the use-quality of computer based systems. Nevertheless, Bader and Nyce argue that cultural analysis "will probably not play a significant role in the development process at the least as it is presently defined." We argue that since the design and use of technology is socially constructed, cultural analysis will only play a role if its proponents strive to make room for it. The argument builds on our own experiences, being computer scientists who have integrated an ethnographic style of working with the design of computer based systems, and on the experiences of colleagues within the above mentioned communities. Some of us have gained our experience from projects in private and public organizations, and those of us also working in academia have included ethnographic techniques in our teaching. Such initiatives represent alternatives neglected by Bader and Nyce, whose assumptions seem to be that the role of cultural analysis is limited to assessments of a development process, to enlarging our understanding of the social nature of development and use, or to providing feedback to developers. We argue that ethnography can play a more proactive role within design. (Bader and Nyce use the terms 'cultural analysis' and 'ethnography'. In our argumentation we use only the term 'ethnography' with which we are most familiar.)
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Papers by Jesper Simonsen
Key words: benefits management, effects-driven process, effects realization, IT improve- ment, local entrepreneurs, local innovation, post-implementation stage.
Schmidt, Kjeld: "A Dialectical Approach to Functional Analysis of Office Work", 1986 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics. October 14-17, 1986, Atlanta, Geordia.
Schmidt, Kjeld: "Function Analysis Instrument", in G. Schäfer et al. (ed.): Functional Analysis of Office Requirements: A Multiperspective Approach, Wiley, Chichester etc., UK, 1988, pp. 261-289.
Schmidt, Kjeld: Funktionsanalysemetoden. En indføring. [The Function Analysis Method. An Introduction], Arbejdsnotater #89-1, 2. udgave, Fagbevægelsens Center for Informationsteknologi, Søborg, Denmark, 1989.
Schmidt, Kjeld, and Peter Carstensen: Arbejdsanalyse, Teori og praksis,[Work Analysis, Theory and practice], Risø National Laboratory, (Risø-M-2889), Roskilde, Denmark, 1990.
Besides the literature it is based on meetings and discussions with Kjeld Schmidt and Peter Carstensen.
- Checkland, Peter: Systems Thinking, Systems Practice. Chichester, West Sussex, UK, 1981, (referred to as SSM, 81), and
- Checkland, Peter, and Ji Scholes: Soft Systems Methodology in Action. Chichester, West Sussex, UK, 1990, (referred to as SSM, 90).
First some background for SSM is given followed by a description of SSM as described in (SSM, 81) and the revised SSM as described in (SSM, 90). SSM and the construction of Information Systems (IS) is briefly mentioned and, as a summary, a table of key concepts and techniques/guidelines is presented. Finally, the philosophy of SSM and the Work Analysis' critique of SSM is described.
Bakka, Jørgen Frode and Egil Fivesdal: Organisationsteori. Struktur, kultur, processer, [Organizational Theory. Structure, Culture, Processes], Nyt Nordisk Forlag, Arnold Busck, Denmark, 1986.
Højrup, Thomas: Lønkapital under folkestyre. ØD-planernes strukturfejl & deres ophævelse, [Capital from Wages Under Representative Government. The Plans for Economic Democracy, their Structural Shortcomings and How to Solve Them], EUCIS (European Center for International Security), Rosinante/Munksgaard, Denmark, 1989.
Simon, Herbert A.: The Sciences of the Artificial, The Massachusetts Institute of Technology, The Murray Printing Company, USA, 1969.
Simon, Herbert A.: "Applying Information Technology to Organizational Design", in Public Administration Review, Vol. 33, No. 3, May/June 1973, pp. 268-278.
Simon, Herbert A.: Administrative Behavior. A Study of Decision-Making Processes in Administrative Organization, Third Edition, The Free Press, Collier Macmillan Publishers, London, UK, 1976.
In a design context the aim of ethnography is to develop a thorough understanding of current work practices as a basis for the design of computer support. A major point in ethnographically inspired approaches is that work is a socially organized activity where the actual behavior differs from how it is described by those who do it. This implies that detailed studies of work must include observations as well as interviews [for example 1, 4, 12]. Blomberg et al. [1] characterize ethnography with four principles and three main techniques: it takes place in natural settings; it is based on the principle of holism, that is, particular behaviors must be understood in the respective context; it develops descriptive understanding in contrast to prescriptive; it is grounded in a member's point-of-view. They use as main techniques observation, interview, and video analyses.
Using ethnography in the design of computer based systems has become increasingly prominent especially within the research communities of Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW), but also within Participatory Design (PD), and Human Computer Interaction (HCI).
Plowman et al. [9] have recently reviewed all studies using ethnography published within the CSCW literature. In this review, three issues (of particular concern to us) are raised. First, the dominant approach is sociologists conducting the ethnographic studies and informing computer scientists of their findings, such as in debriefing meetings [for example 5, 6]. Second, reports on concrete consequences of a specific design due to such an approach are typically absent. Third, a "need to consider developing hybrid and tailored forms of ethnography which can play different practical roles in the various phases of design" is argued [9 p. 321].
As computer scientists, we have adopted and experimented with ethnography in design [2, 10, 11]. We have developed a method for participatory design where ethnography is an embedded part of the overall design activities [8]. Participatory Design refers to an approach where users play an active part. Users and designers engage in mutual learning activities in order to understand users' current work and generate coherent visions for change [3].
We believe that practitioners can benefit from using ethnography in contextual design (particular when designing systems in a specific organizational context), but they must be aware of the conditions needed for such an approach.
This article presents a case from our research in the form of a design project for the Editorial Board of a Film Board (detailed in [10]). The project was conducted in two parts. Traditional techniques like meetings, interviews, document analysis, rich pictures, and mock-ups were used in Part One leading to a first design proposal. In Part Two, experiments with ethno-graphic techniques like observation and videorecording were applied and the effect was evaluated in light of the first design proposal.
Here, we present the organization and describe the Editorial Board design project. We spent approximately 14 person weeks over a period of 10 months on the project because it also served as a research project. Had it been a real life consulting job, our estimate would be approximately 10 person weeks.
Key words: benefits management, effects-driven process, effects realization, IT improve- ment, local entrepreneurs, local innovation, post-implementation stage.
Schmidt, Kjeld: "A Dialectical Approach to Functional Analysis of Office Work", 1986 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics. October 14-17, 1986, Atlanta, Geordia.
Schmidt, Kjeld: "Function Analysis Instrument", in G. Schäfer et al. (ed.): Functional Analysis of Office Requirements: A Multiperspective Approach, Wiley, Chichester etc., UK, 1988, pp. 261-289.
Schmidt, Kjeld: Funktionsanalysemetoden. En indføring. [The Function Analysis Method. An Introduction], Arbejdsnotater #89-1, 2. udgave, Fagbevægelsens Center for Informationsteknologi, Søborg, Denmark, 1989.
Schmidt, Kjeld, and Peter Carstensen: Arbejdsanalyse, Teori og praksis,[Work Analysis, Theory and practice], Risø National Laboratory, (Risø-M-2889), Roskilde, Denmark, 1990.
Besides the literature it is based on meetings and discussions with Kjeld Schmidt and Peter Carstensen.
- Checkland, Peter: Systems Thinking, Systems Practice. Chichester, West Sussex, UK, 1981, (referred to as SSM, 81), and
- Checkland, Peter, and Ji Scholes: Soft Systems Methodology in Action. Chichester, West Sussex, UK, 1990, (referred to as SSM, 90).
First some background for SSM is given followed by a description of SSM as described in (SSM, 81) and the revised SSM as described in (SSM, 90). SSM and the construction of Information Systems (IS) is briefly mentioned and, as a summary, a table of key concepts and techniques/guidelines is presented. Finally, the philosophy of SSM and the Work Analysis' critique of SSM is described.
Bakka, Jørgen Frode and Egil Fivesdal: Organisationsteori. Struktur, kultur, processer, [Organizational Theory. Structure, Culture, Processes], Nyt Nordisk Forlag, Arnold Busck, Denmark, 1986.
Højrup, Thomas: Lønkapital under folkestyre. ØD-planernes strukturfejl & deres ophævelse, [Capital from Wages Under Representative Government. The Plans for Economic Democracy, their Structural Shortcomings and How to Solve Them], EUCIS (European Center for International Security), Rosinante/Munksgaard, Denmark, 1989.
Simon, Herbert A.: The Sciences of the Artificial, The Massachusetts Institute of Technology, The Murray Printing Company, USA, 1969.
Simon, Herbert A.: "Applying Information Technology to Organizational Design", in Public Administration Review, Vol. 33, No. 3, May/June 1973, pp. 268-278.
Simon, Herbert A.: Administrative Behavior. A Study of Decision-Making Processes in Administrative Organization, Third Edition, The Free Press, Collier Macmillan Publishers, London, UK, 1976.
In a design context the aim of ethnography is to develop a thorough understanding of current work practices as a basis for the design of computer support. A major point in ethnographically inspired approaches is that work is a socially organized activity where the actual behavior differs from how it is described by those who do it. This implies that detailed studies of work must include observations as well as interviews [for example 1, 4, 12]. Blomberg et al. [1] characterize ethnography with four principles and three main techniques: it takes place in natural settings; it is based on the principle of holism, that is, particular behaviors must be understood in the respective context; it develops descriptive understanding in contrast to prescriptive; it is grounded in a member's point-of-view. They use as main techniques observation, interview, and video analyses.
Using ethnography in the design of computer based systems has become increasingly prominent especially within the research communities of Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW), but also within Participatory Design (PD), and Human Computer Interaction (HCI).
Plowman et al. [9] have recently reviewed all studies using ethnography published within the CSCW literature. In this review, three issues (of particular concern to us) are raised. First, the dominant approach is sociologists conducting the ethnographic studies and informing computer scientists of their findings, such as in debriefing meetings [for example 5, 6]. Second, reports on concrete consequences of a specific design due to such an approach are typically absent. Third, a "need to consider developing hybrid and tailored forms of ethnography which can play different practical roles in the various phases of design" is argued [9 p. 321].
As computer scientists, we have adopted and experimented with ethnography in design [2, 10, 11]. We have developed a method for participatory design where ethnography is an embedded part of the overall design activities [8]. Participatory Design refers to an approach where users play an active part. Users and designers engage in mutual learning activities in order to understand users' current work and generate coherent visions for change [3].
We believe that practitioners can benefit from using ethnography in contextual design (particular when designing systems in a specific organizational context), but they must be aware of the conditions needed for such an approach.
This article presents a case from our research in the form of a design project for the Editorial Board of a Film Board (detailed in [10]). The project was conducted in two parts. Traditional techniques like meetings, interviews, document analysis, rich pictures, and mock-ups were used in Part One leading to a first design proposal. In Part Two, experiments with ethno-graphic techniques like observation and videorecording were applied and the effect was evaluated in light of the first design proposal.
Here, we present the organization and describe the Editorial Board design project. We spent approximately 14 person weeks over a period of 10 months on the project because it also served as a research project. Had it been a real life consulting job, our estimate would be approximately 10 person weeks.
The dissertation is based on exploratory empirical studies in one organization using action researchas the researchapproach. The focus oft he action research project is on improving work practices for designers by developing methodological guidelines, heuristics, or “rules of thumb”. This involves organizational issues comprising of social, political, and managerial/strategical aspects within the organization.