Sikhism as a syncretic movement was initiated by Baba Guru Nanak during the 15th century, which w... more Sikhism as a syncretic movement was initiated by Baba Guru Nanak during the 15th century, which was different from pre-existing beliefs of Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, and Bhaktism. His life struggle was based on the philosophy, "There is no Hindu and no Mussalman." Later, his struggle took the shape of a new religion called Sikhism, and many people came under its influence. This research postulates that Muslim-Sikh relations were cordial during the early years of the propagation of this belief. However, after the death of the fourth Sikh Guru Arjun Singh, a visible rift started appearing between Sikhs and Muslims. It resulted in many battles between the followers of the two faiths. Hence, Muslim-Sikh rivalry was raised when Sikhism started owing to the Gurus' involvement in Mughal politics of succession. This study aims to analyze the Muslim-Sikh relations during the time of the first four Gurus and then shed light upon them through the tenure of the later Gurus.
This article studies the political, social, and economic patterns of Multan under Arab rule based... more This article studies the political, social, and economic patterns of Multan under Arab rule based on both primary and secondary sources. The mercantile cosmopolis Multan remained at the periphery of the central Muslim empires and had a heterogenous population with orthodox and heterodox tendencies. The rulers of these regions realized that their political power dynamics could not be like those of the centre because of their mercantile and pilgrim economy. Under the Banū Sāmah, the emirs of Multan followed a metadoxy, pietistic, and mercantile cosmopolitanism policy, as the state measures for the imposition of orthodoxy and the control of the belief system were lax. Nevertheless, the Fatimids destroyed the Aditya Sun Temple, though they signed a truce with Hindu kingdoms of surrounding areas against Maḥmūd of Ghazni without foreseeing its consequences. Multan's political and religious dynamics in the medieval era were intricately intertwined with the political, moral, and financial economy as the economic, political, and multicultural religious dynamics were in deep nexus.
Mehrgarh remains an important site for researchers working on the Neolithic and Chalcolithic peri... more Mehrgarh remains an important site for researchers working on the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods in South Asia, since it has been continuously inhabited from around 7000 BCE to 2500 BCE. Excavations at the site have revealed evidence of early farming and herding practices, as well as evidence of pottery and metalworking. The site also contains a number of burials and architectural remains. The civilization thus provides most significant evidence to understand the development of early human civilization in the region. Present article is a diachronic study that offers an analytical layer to the existing reports and material culture. It tries to compare the Mehrgarh civilization with the Iranian, Central Asian civilizations and Indus Civilizations. Also, the article tries to summarize the achievements of Mehrgarh Civilization during its seven ages.
Due to fewer historical records, it is generally believed that famines and epidemics were less fr... more Due to fewer historical records, it is generally believed that famines and epidemics were less frequent in ancient India. However, various records depict that ancient India was not immune to these natural catastrophes, and they proved disastrous on some occasions; furthermore, certain other factors also depict the high presence of famines and epidemics. This article aims to identify the factors responsible for frequent and disastrous famines and epidemics in ancient India, such as deforestation, urbanization, invasions, etc, their impacts, and the role of rulers in giving way to these catastrophes and how they responded to them. The findings of the study are based on qualitative research, and it is an analytical work based on secondary sources. The factors such as urbanization, deforestation, trade, migration, wars, and poor living conditions depict that ancient India was no different from medieval and colonial India when it comes to instances of these natural catastrophes.
Pak. Journal of Int’L Affairs, Vol 5, Issue 4, 2022
Mehrgarh remains an important site for researchers working on the Neolithic and Chalcolithic peri... more Mehrgarh remains an important site for researchers working on the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods in South Asia, since it has been continuously inhabited from around 7000 BCE to 2500 BCE. Excavations at the site have revealed evidence of early farming and herding practices, as well as evidence of pottery and metalworking. The site also contains a number of burials and architectural remains. The civilization thus provides most significant evidence to understand the development of early human civilization in the region. Present article is a diachronic study that offers an analytical layer to the existing reports and material culture. It tries to compare the Mehrgarh civilization with the Iranian, Central Asian civilizations and Indus Civilizations. Also, the article tries to summarize the achievements of Mehrgarh Civilization during its seven ages.
Due to fewer historical records, it is generally believed that famines and epidemics were less fr... more Due to fewer historical records, it is generally believed that famines and epidemics were less frequent in ancient India. However, various records depict that ancient India was not immune to these natural catastrophes, and they proved disastrous on some occasions; furthermore, certain other factors also depict the high presence of famines and epidemics. This article aims to identify the factors responsible for frequent and disastrous famines and epidemics in ancient India, such as deforestation, urbanization, invasions, etc, their impacts, and the role of rulers in giving way to these catastrophes and how they responded to them. The findings of the study are based on qualitative research, and it is an analytical work based on secondary sources. The factors such as urbanization, deforestation, trade, migration, wars, and poor living conditions depict that ancient India was no different from medieval and colonial India when it comes to instances of these natural catastrophes.
This article argues that although there is little mention of women in general and female slaves i... more This article argues that although there is little mention of women in general and female slaves in particular in the Delhi Sultanate primary sources, these scarce references taken cumulatively create a legible portrait of female slaves. Secondly, based on primary sources of the Sultanate era, this article identifies some undercurrent themes about femininity and the social roles of female slaves. Thirdly, this article categorizes the sultanate historical sources into four genres, that are, political histories, Sufi literature, poetry and travelogues and tries to rationalize, compare and contrast the tone and treatment of female slaves in each of these genres.
Historicus - Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society, 2019
Trust and distrust were the edifice on which the relational matrix o f the Delhi Sultanate (1206-... more Trust and distrust were the edifice on which the relational matrix o f the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1399/605-801) pow er structure was constructed. Every sultan promoted trusted elements within nobility that he nurtured through an active process of procurement and selection. Present article takes into account trust-based relations in the Delhi Sultanate and the process through which nobility was acquired, cultivated and sustained. The treatment o f trusted elements can be juxtaposed with the treatment o f distrusted elements in order to understand power relations among the ruling elite. The article argues that although the sultans made every possible effort to promote trusted nobility however, they could never completely trust them and this distrust resulted in an extremely centralized and highly unstable power-structure that was knitted around the personality of the sultan and the power structure crumbled as soon as the latter disappeared.
There is a plethora of literature available on presentism in film adaptations of historical event... more There is a plethora of literature available on presentism in film adaptations of historical events in world cinema in general and Bollywood cinema in particular. The film "Panipat: The Great Betrayal (PGB) is no exception to this trend. This article delves into the political aspect of the film and postulates that this period epic is reflective of the contemporary political situation in India. Identity binaries of 'us' and 'them' are created by introducing oversimplified themes, including religion, gender, ethnicity, and nationalism. A shift of emphasis from secular nationalism to religious nationalism Hindutva as Indian political ideology can be observed through many Bollywood period movies in general and PGB in particular. The film PGB reflects the Indian version of feminism where the women are educated and professional, yet their purpose is to aid their male family members.
In the fourteenth century, the political relations in the sovereign city of Delhi were patrimonia... more In the fourteenth century, the political relations in the sovereign city of Delhi were patrimonial and were governed through the patron client matrix. The sultan was a patron for the social and political base of the Delhi Sultanate that he actively created and modified in order to win greater political support. The Khaljī sultans were not as religious as their predecessor slave dynasty or successor Tughluq dynasty. The religious groups under Sufis and ʿulamāʾ became more powerful in Delhi and the popular politics they initiated was unprecedented. Present article delves into the politics of religion and explains how the religious elite was able to gather as much support on the streets during the Khaljī era .
Several studies are available to study famines and epidemics in India, but there is a research ga... more Several studies are available to study famines and epidemics in India, but there is a research gap on the co-occurrence of these natural catastrophes in the medieval era and the role of human factors behind them. This article is an attempt to postulate the factors responsible behind the increased appearance of famines and epidemics, their consequences and interdependence. Climate change was observed in the medieval India that was the result of human actions and depicts that policy failure was the factor behind increased instances of famines and epidemics.
This article explains the efforts of the Delhi sultans to control the ʿulamāʾ during the Tughluq ... more This article explains the efforts of the Delhi sultans to control the ʿulamāʾ during the Tughluq period. The article postulates that the Tughluq sultans controlled the ʿulamāʾ though patronization, punishment and reward. Muḥammad b. Tughluq (r. 720-752 / 1325-1351)'s era was the most documented era of Delhi Sultanate. The ʿulamāʾ and Sufis that documented this era report the Sultan's aggression against religious classes. The article also embarks upon travels of ʿulamāʾ, their trans regional networks and professional mobility.
This article analyzes various diplomatic strategies adopted by The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) to con... more This article analyzes various diplomatic strategies adopted by The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) to connect with the world around him. With these strategies, He dealt with His non-Muslim subjects, with non-Muslims within Arabian peninsula and sent the message across Arabian peninsula. The Prophet executed peace treaties, and personally visited places to spread the message across. He also wrote letters and sent emissaries to the other heads of the states.
In the fourteenth century Delhi Sultanate polyglot Amir Khusraw (1253-1352) was one of the earlie... more In the fourteenth century Delhi Sultanate polyglot Amir Khusraw (1253-1352) was one of the earliest poets of Hindawi language who blended medieval northern Indian dialects Braj Bhasha and Khari Boli. In his times, Persian was considered the official and literary language that was used by the Delhi Sultanate ashraf (elite). On the other hand, many local dialects including Hindawi were considered to be the language of the ajlaf (commoners) in the Sultanate society. Amir Khusraw was a man of diverse experiences and identities, he was; a literati as well as a military man, a statesman as well as a renowned Sufi and a Turk born to an Indian mother. He mainly wrote in Persian and Hindawi languages and used Arabic lexicon and literary tropes as well. Amir Khusraw was a master linguist who by his expert use of different components of Hindawi including lexicon (farhang), morphology (ilm e Sakht), semantics (ilm ul Ma'ani), phonology (sautiaat) and syntax (nahaw) canonized the language. This research is an effort to analyze the linguistic components of Amir Khusraw's Hindawi poetry and understand his literary tropes, techniques and linguistic innovations. The research also highlights the issue of authenticity of his Hindawi poetry by probing into the fourteenth century medieval literary practices.
This article posits that in the Delhi Sultanate, the Ilbari rulers tried to influence networks o... more This article posits that in the Delhi Sultanate, the Ilbari rulers tried to influence networks of ʿulamāʾ through a continuous process of patronization, reward and punishment. Each sultan was faced with the challenge of controlling preexisting networks of ʿulamāʾ with strong roots in the Sultanate milieu. Rulers responded by superimposing new networks over older ones, and inviting and accommodating foreign ʿulamāʾ to become power-sharers. The new networks were relatively easier to control and generated little reaction if a new ʿālim was punished. During power-shifts, the ʿulamāʾ never acted as a monolithic group and sided with different segments of umarāʾ.
This paper refers to the Padmavat poem as a source of social and cultural history along five majo... more This paper refers to the Padmavat poem as a source of social and cultural history along five major themes. The first is the historicity of Padmavat, the second is the construction of Padmavat as the esoteric 'other' in Jayasi's account. The third is the role of image and power in women's histories. The fourth is patriarchal honor in historical memory, and the last engages with the politics of recent protests in relation to Rajput historical consciousness about Padmavati.
Sikhism as a syncretic movement was initiated by Baba Guru Nanak during the 15th century, which w... more Sikhism as a syncretic movement was initiated by Baba Guru Nanak during the 15th century, which was different from pre-existing beliefs of Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, and Bhaktism. His life struggle was based on the philosophy, "There is no Hindu and no Mussalman." Later, his struggle took the shape of a new religion called Sikhism, and many people came under its influence. This research postulates that Muslim-Sikh relations were cordial during the early years of the propagation of this belief. However, after the death of the fourth Sikh Guru Arjun Singh, a visible rift started appearing between Sikhs and Muslims. It resulted in many battles between the followers of the two faiths. Hence, Muslim-Sikh rivalry was raised when Sikhism started owing to the Gurus' involvement in Mughal politics of succession. This study aims to analyze the Muslim-Sikh relations during the time of the first four Gurus and then shed light upon them through the tenure of the later Gurus.
This article studies the political, social, and economic patterns of Multan under Arab rule based... more This article studies the political, social, and economic patterns of Multan under Arab rule based on both primary and secondary sources. The mercantile cosmopolis Multan remained at the periphery of the central Muslim empires and had a heterogenous population with orthodox and heterodox tendencies. The rulers of these regions realized that their political power dynamics could not be like those of the centre because of their mercantile and pilgrim economy. Under the Banū Sāmah, the emirs of Multan followed a metadoxy, pietistic, and mercantile cosmopolitanism policy, as the state measures for the imposition of orthodoxy and the control of the belief system were lax. Nevertheless, the Fatimids destroyed the Aditya Sun Temple, though they signed a truce with Hindu kingdoms of surrounding areas against Maḥmūd of Ghazni without foreseeing its consequences. Multan's political and religious dynamics in the medieval era were intricately intertwined with the political, moral, and financial economy as the economic, political, and multicultural religious dynamics were in deep nexus.
Mehrgarh remains an important site for researchers working on the Neolithic and Chalcolithic peri... more Mehrgarh remains an important site for researchers working on the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods in South Asia, since it has been continuously inhabited from around 7000 BCE to 2500 BCE. Excavations at the site have revealed evidence of early farming and herding practices, as well as evidence of pottery and metalworking. The site also contains a number of burials and architectural remains. The civilization thus provides most significant evidence to understand the development of early human civilization in the region. Present article is a diachronic study that offers an analytical layer to the existing reports and material culture. It tries to compare the Mehrgarh civilization with the Iranian, Central Asian civilizations and Indus Civilizations. Also, the article tries to summarize the achievements of Mehrgarh Civilization during its seven ages.
Due to fewer historical records, it is generally believed that famines and epidemics were less fr... more Due to fewer historical records, it is generally believed that famines and epidemics were less frequent in ancient India. However, various records depict that ancient India was not immune to these natural catastrophes, and they proved disastrous on some occasions; furthermore, certain other factors also depict the high presence of famines and epidemics. This article aims to identify the factors responsible for frequent and disastrous famines and epidemics in ancient India, such as deforestation, urbanization, invasions, etc, their impacts, and the role of rulers in giving way to these catastrophes and how they responded to them. The findings of the study are based on qualitative research, and it is an analytical work based on secondary sources. The factors such as urbanization, deforestation, trade, migration, wars, and poor living conditions depict that ancient India was no different from medieval and colonial India when it comes to instances of these natural catastrophes.
Pak. Journal of Int’L Affairs, Vol 5, Issue 4, 2022
Mehrgarh remains an important site for researchers working on the Neolithic and Chalcolithic peri... more Mehrgarh remains an important site for researchers working on the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods in South Asia, since it has been continuously inhabited from around 7000 BCE to 2500 BCE. Excavations at the site have revealed evidence of early farming and herding practices, as well as evidence of pottery and metalworking. The site also contains a number of burials and architectural remains. The civilization thus provides most significant evidence to understand the development of early human civilization in the region. Present article is a diachronic study that offers an analytical layer to the existing reports and material culture. It tries to compare the Mehrgarh civilization with the Iranian, Central Asian civilizations and Indus Civilizations. Also, the article tries to summarize the achievements of Mehrgarh Civilization during its seven ages.
Due to fewer historical records, it is generally believed that famines and epidemics were less fr... more Due to fewer historical records, it is generally believed that famines and epidemics were less frequent in ancient India. However, various records depict that ancient India was not immune to these natural catastrophes, and they proved disastrous on some occasions; furthermore, certain other factors also depict the high presence of famines and epidemics. This article aims to identify the factors responsible for frequent and disastrous famines and epidemics in ancient India, such as deforestation, urbanization, invasions, etc, their impacts, and the role of rulers in giving way to these catastrophes and how they responded to them. The findings of the study are based on qualitative research, and it is an analytical work based on secondary sources. The factors such as urbanization, deforestation, trade, migration, wars, and poor living conditions depict that ancient India was no different from medieval and colonial India when it comes to instances of these natural catastrophes.
This article argues that although there is little mention of women in general and female slaves i... more This article argues that although there is little mention of women in general and female slaves in particular in the Delhi Sultanate primary sources, these scarce references taken cumulatively create a legible portrait of female slaves. Secondly, based on primary sources of the Sultanate era, this article identifies some undercurrent themes about femininity and the social roles of female slaves. Thirdly, this article categorizes the sultanate historical sources into four genres, that are, political histories, Sufi literature, poetry and travelogues and tries to rationalize, compare and contrast the tone and treatment of female slaves in each of these genres.
Historicus - Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society, 2019
Trust and distrust were the edifice on which the relational matrix o f the Delhi Sultanate (1206-... more Trust and distrust were the edifice on which the relational matrix o f the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1399/605-801) pow er structure was constructed. Every sultan promoted trusted elements within nobility that he nurtured through an active process of procurement and selection. Present article takes into account trust-based relations in the Delhi Sultanate and the process through which nobility was acquired, cultivated and sustained. The treatment o f trusted elements can be juxtaposed with the treatment o f distrusted elements in order to understand power relations among the ruling elite. The article argues that although the sultans made every possible effort to promote trusted nobility however, they could never completely trust them and this distrust resulted in an extremely centralized and highly unstable power-structure that was knitted around the personality of the sultan and the power structure crumbled as soon as the latter disappeared.
There is a plethora of literature available on presentism in film adaptations of historical event... more There is a plethora of literature available on presentism in film adaptations of historical events in world cinema in general and Bollywood cinema in particular. The film "Panipat: The Great Betrayal (PGB) is no exception to this trend. This article delves into the political aspect of the film and postulates that this period epic is reflective of the contemporary political situation in India. Identity binaries of 'us' and 'them' are created by introducing oversimplified themes, including religion, gender, ethnicity, and nationalism. A shift of emphasis from secular nationalism to religious nationalism Hindutva as Indian political ideology can be observed through many Bollywood period movies in general and PGB in particular. The film PGB reflects the Indian version of feminism where the women are educated and professional, yet their purpose is to aid their male family members.
In the fourteenth century, the political relations in the sovereign city of Delhi were patrimonia... more In the fourteenth century, the political relations in the sovereign city of Delhi were patrimonial and were governed through the patron client matrix. The sultan was a patron for the social and political base of the Delhi Sultanate that he actively created and modified in order to win greater political support. The Khaljī sultans were not as religious as their predecessor slave dynasty or successor Tughluq dynasty. The religious groups under Sufis and ʿulamāʾ became more powerful in Delhi and the popular politics they initiated was unprecedented. Present article delves into the politics of religion and explains how the religious elite was able to gather as much support on the streets during the Khaljī era .
Several studies are available to study famines and epidemics in India, but there is a research ga... more Several studies are available to study famines and epidemics in India, but there is a research gap on the co-occurrence of these natural catastrophes in the medieval era and the role of human factors behind them. This article is an attempt to postulate the factors responsible behind the increased appearance of famines and epidemics, their consequences and interdependence. Climate change was observed in the medieval India that was the result of human actions and depicts that policy failure was the factor behind increased instances of famines and epidemics.
This article explains the efforts of the Delhi sultans to control the ʿulamāʾ during the Tughluq ... more This article explains the efforts of the Delhi sultans to control the ʿulamāʾ during the Tughluq period. The article postulates that the Tughluq sultans controlled the ʿulamāʾ though patronization, punishment and reward. Muḥammad b. Tughluq (r. 720-752 / 1325-1351)'s era was the most documented era of Delhi Sultanate. The ʿulamāʾ and Sufis that documented this era report the Sultan's aggression against religious classes. The article also embarks upon travels of ʿulamāʾ, their trans regional networks and professional mobility.
This article analyzes various diplomatic strategies adopted by The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) to con... more This article analyzes various diplomatic strategies adopted by The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) to connect with the world around him. With these strategies, He dealt with His non-Muslim subjects, with non-Muslims within Arabian peninsula and sent the message across Arabian peninsula. The Prophet executed peace treaties, and personally visited places to spread the message across. He also wrote letters and sent emissaries to the other heads of the states.
In the fourteenth century Delhi Sultanate polyglot Amir Khusraw (1253-1352) was one of the earlie... more In the fourteenth century Delhi Sultanate polyglot Amir Khusraw (1253-1352) was one of the earliest poets of Hindawi language who blended medieval northern Indian dialects Braj Bhasha and Khari Boli. In his times, Persian was considered the official and literary language that was used by the Delhi Sultanate ashraf (elite). On the other hand, many local dialects including Hindawi were considered to be the language of the ajlaf (commoners) in the Sultanate society. Amir Khusraw was a man of diverse experiences and identities, he was; a literati as well as a military man, a statesman as well as a renowned Sufi and a Turk born to an Indian mother. He mainly wrote in Persian and Hindawi languages and used Arabic lexicon and literary tropes as well. Amir Khusraw was a master linguist who by his expert use of different components of Hindawi including lexicon (farhang), morphology (ilm e Sakht), semantics (ilm ul Ma'ani), phonology (sautiaat) and syntax (nahaw) canonized the language. This research is an effort to analyze the linguistic components of Amir Khusraw's Hindawi poetry and understand his literary tropes, techniques and linguistic innovations. The research also highlights the issue of authenticity of his Hindawi poetry by probing into the fourteenth century medieval literary practices.
This article posits that in the Delhi Sultanate, the Ilbari rulers tried to influence networks o... more This article posits that in the Delhi Sultanate, the Ilbari rulers tried to influence networks of ʿulamāʾ through a continuous process of patronization, reward and punishment. Each sultan was faced with the challenge of controlling preexisting networks of ʿulamāʾ with strong roots in the Sultanate milieu. Rulers responded by superimposing new networks over older ones, and inviting and accommodating foreign ʿulamāʾ to become power-sharers. The new networks were relatively easier to control and generated little reaction if a new ʿālim was punished. During power-shifts, the ʿulamāʾ never acted as a monolithic group and sided with different segments of umarāʾ.
This paper refers to the Padmavat poem as a source of social and cultural history along five majo... more This paper refers to the Padmavat poem as a source of social and cultural history along five major themes. The first is the historicity of Padmavat, the second is the construction of Padmavat as the esoteric 'other' in Jayasi's account. The third is the role of image and power in women's histories. The fourth is patriarchal honor in historical memory, and the last engages with the politics of recent protests in relation to Rajput historical consciousness about Padmavati.
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