Papers by Lucia Bakošová
Yearbook of international disaster law online, Feb 21, 2022
This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the CC BY-NC 4.0 license.
Bratislava Law Review
The year 2022 offered the international community an opportunity to take concrete steps in reduci... more The year 2022 offered the international community an opportunity to take concrete steps in reducing the impacts of climate change. In November 2022, the State Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement, as well as representatives of international organizations, corporations, civil society and activists met in Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt to discuss the current state of climate change and measures that are capable to protect future generations from adverse effects of climate change, mitigate or adapt to them. The paper comments on the outcome documents and key issues that were discussed at the Sharm el-Sheikh Climate Change Conference (COP27), as well as measures that were adopted. Particular attention is focused on the Sharm el-Sheikh Implementation Plan. The key issues that are addressed in this paper are related to the rising amount of emissions, failure to move away from fossil fuels, and the newly established loss and damage fund.
STUDIA IURIDICA Casoviensia
Far-reaching negative effects of climate change are putting pressure on the international communi... more Far-reaching negative effects of climate change are putting pressure on the international community to adopt appropriate climate actions with regard to sustainable development. The use of artificial intelligence may be one of the tools to achieve the goals set in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. The paper highlights several examples of artificial intelligence that can be used to achieve appropriate climate action, such as weather and natural disaster predictions, or they can help monitor, model and manage environmental systems, whether it is illegal logging, water degradation, illegal fishing and poaching, air pollution or the burden of farming. Technologies using artificial intelligence are, however, often developed and used in an ethical and legal vacuum. The aim of the paper is to outline the existing international legislation in the context of meeting the goals of sustainable development in the field of climate action through artificial intelligence and to point...
STUDIA IURIDICA Cassoviensia, 2021
Vaccination of children is of particular importance not only for their parents, but also for Gove... more Vaccination of children is of particular importance not only for their parents, but also for Governments in upholding their obligations under international human rights instruments, such as the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights or the Convention on the Rights of the Child. In the last years, however, the amount of children vaccinated against life-threatening diseases is declining. One of the most frequent arguments against vaccination (especially in case of compulsory vaccination) is the interference with the right to private and family life and the freedom of thought, conscience and religion. The aim of this paper is to analyse the judgement of the European Court of Human Rights in the case of Vavřička and Others v. the Czech Republic and to highlight its relevance to Slovakia and international human rights law.
STUDIA IURIDICA Casoviensia, 2019
Bilaterálne zmluvy sú dôležitou súčasťou medzinárodného práva reakcie na katastrofy, ktoré čiasto... more Bilaterálne zmluvy sú dôležitou súčasťou medzinárodného práva reakcie na katastrofy, ktoré čiastočne vypĺňajú absenciu kodifikačného dohovoru komplexne upravujúceho aktivity subjektov pôsobiacich vo všetkých štádiách katastrof. 1 Slovenská republika od svojho vzniku uzatvára bilaterálne zmluvy o dobrovoľnom poskytovaní pomoci pri katastrofách, živelných pohromách a iných mimoriadnych udalostiach, ktoré ohrozujú životy a zdravie ľudí, majetok alebo životné prostredie a určujú základné podmienky pomoci poskytovanej na základe písomnej žiadosti zmluvnej strany žiadajúcej o pomoc. Cieľom príspevku je poukázať na medzinárodné aspekty prírodných a ľudskou činnosťou spôsobených katastrof, ktoré sú upravené v bilaterálnych zmluvách Slovenskej republiky o spolupráci a vzájomnej pomoci pri katastrofách a na rozsah ich úpravy.
STUDIA IURIDICA Cassoviensia
The aim of this paper is to analyse current approaches and perspectives on the development of eth... more The aim of this paper is to analyse current approaches and perspectives on the development of ethical and legal regulation of artificial intelligence with special regard to its use in health and nursing care. Inextricably linked to this is an analysis of current international and national binding legislation, as well as legally non-binding instruments designed for artificial intelligence developers, manufacturers and users. In addition to the positive benefits of artificial intelligence in health and nursing care, we point out the ethical and legal aspects of its use, such as the legal personality of artificial intelligence, patients' right to privacy, personal data protection and civil liability for damage caused by artificial intelligence. We place the main emphasis on the legislation of the European Union, which has a direct impact on the national legislation of the Slovak Republic.
STUDIA IURIDICA Cassoviensia, 2021
Vaccination of children is of particular importance not only for their parents, but also for Gove... more Vaccination of children is of particular importance not only for their parents, but also for Governments in upholding their obligations under international human rights instruments, such as the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights or the Convention on the Rights of the Child. In the last years, however, the amount of children vaccinated against life-threatening diseases is declining. One of the most frequent arguments against vaccination (especially in case of compulsory vaccination) is the interference with the right to private and family life and the freedom of thought, conscience and religion. The aim of this paper is to analyse the judgement of the European Court of Human Rights in the case of Vavřička and Others v. the Czech Republic and to highlight its relevance to Slovakia and international human rights law.
STUDIA IURIDICA Cassoviensia, 2020
The aim of this paper is to analyse current approaches and perspectives on the development of eth... more The aim of this paper is to analyse current approaches and perspectives on the development of ethical and legal regulation of artificial intelligence with special regard to its use in health and nursing care. Inextricably linked to this is an analysis of current international and national binding legislation, as well as legally non-binding instruments designed for artificial intelligence developers, manufacturers and users. In addition to the positive benefits of artificial intelligence in health and nursing care, we point out the ethical and legal aspects of its use, such as the legal personality of artificial intelligence, patients' right to privacy, personal data protection and civil liability for damage caused by artificial intelligence. We place the main emphasis on the legislation of the European Union, which has a direct impact on the national legislation of the Slovak Republic.
STUDIA IURIDICA Cassoviensia, 2019
Bilaterálne zmluvy sú dôležitou súčasťou medzinárodného práva reakcie na katastrofy, ktoré čiasto... more Bilaterálne zmluvy sú dôležitou súčasťou medzinárodného práva reakcie na katastrofy, ktoré čiastočne vypĺňajú absenciu kodifikačného dohovoru komplexne upravujúceho aktivity subjektov pôsobiacich vo všetkých štádiách katastrof. Slovenská republika od svojho vzniku uzatvára bilaterálne zmluvy o dobrovoľnom poskytovaní pomoci pri katastrofách, živelných pohromách a iných mimoriadnych udalostiach, ktoré ohrozujú životy a zdravie ľudí, majetok alebo životné prostredie a určujú základné podmienky pomoci poskytovanej na základe písomnej žiadosti zmluvnej strany žiadajúcej o pomoc. Cieľom príspevku je poukázať na medzinárodné aspekty prírodných a ľudskou činnosťou spôsobených katastrof, ktoré sú upravené v bilaterálnych zmluvách Slovenskej republiky o spolupráci a vzájomnej pomoci pri katastrofách a na rozsah ich úpravy.
Lietanie sa veľmi dlhý čas pokladalo iba za nedosiahnuteľný sen ľudstva. To sa však pred vyše 100... more Lietanie sa veľmi dlhý čas pokladalo iba za nedosiahnuteľný sen ľudstva. To sa však pred vyše 100 rokmi zmenilo. Lietanie bolo odjakživa spájané so symbolom slobody. V posledných desaťročiach sa sloboda lietania transformuje aj do právnych predpisov, ktoré tvoria letecké právo. Počiatky právnej úpravy siahajú na začiatok 20. storočia, konkrétne do roku 1919, kedy bol prijatý Parížsky dohovor 1 , ktorý položil základy právneho režimu nad vzdušným priestorom. Vývoj ďalej pokračoval Chicagským dohovorom (1944) 2 , ktorý bol predovšetkým venovaný komerčným slobodám vzduchu a Montrealským dohovorom (1999) 3 , ktorý viedol k zjednocovaniu niektorých pravidiel leteckej dopravy. Súčasnú dobu charakterizuje uzatváranie zmlúv označovaných termínom Open Sky Agreements, tzv. Dohody o Otvorenom nebi. Momentálne je uzavretých niekoľko desiatok takýchto dohôd, ktoré otvárajú letecký priestor pre čoraz väčší počet subjektov. Tieto dohody sú charakteristické svojimi liberálnymi a nediskriminujúcimi pravidlami. V našej práci sme sa zamerali na právny režim Otvoreného neba medzi členskými štátmi Európskej únie a Spojenými štátmi americkými v oblasti civilného letectva, pretože sa nás ako obyvateľov Európskej únie najviac dotýka. Jej prelomovosť predstavuje fakt, že európske aerolínie môžu uskutočňovať priame lety do USA bez akýchkoľvek obmedzení z akéhokoľvek miesta z Európy, samozrejme toto platí aj v prípade aerolínii Spojených štátov, ktoré prevádzkujú lety do Európy. Spoločným cieľom pri uzatvorení tejto dohody bola maximalizácia výhod pre spotrebiteľov, letecké spoločnosti, pracovníkov a verejnosť na oboch stranách Atlantického oceánu vrátane zlepšenia prístupu leteckých spoločností ku globálnym kapitálovým trhom v záujme lepšieho zohľadnenia reality svetového leteckého priemyslu, posilnenia systému transatlantickej leteckej dopravy a vytvorenia rámca schopného povzbudiť iné krajiny, aby otvorili svoje trhy s leteckými službami.
Responsibility to Protect: Lessons Learned and the Way Forward, 2019
The author in the paper will try to answer two questions. First, what is the correlation between ... more The author in the paper will try to answer two questions. First, what is the correlation between the International Disaster Response Law (IDRL) and Responsibility to Protect (R2P). In what cases the application of R2P doctrine is the only option to prevent or to stop crimes against humanity in the aftermath of a disaster. Second, since the role of an affected State in the IDRL is clear – protection of its population from the negative effects of disasters, the author will focus its attention to the role of non-state actors (NSAs). Special regard is given to NSAs who are providing international assistance or advocating at a national or international level for causes which are either highly relevant or directly connected to R2P and disaster response, such as the Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch and others. The reason why the focus is on NSAs is the fact, that their role in disaster response and their contribution to upholding the R2P doctrine is recognizable. The aim of the paper is to highlight the NSAs´ role in R2P in the aftermath of a disaster, since the affected States may be more tolerable to NSAs, rather than States who may be politically motivated to provide international assistance.
Otázky postavenia utečencov, právo na azyl vzťahujúce sa k určitému územiu a určenie štátu zodpov... more Otázky postavenia utečencov, právo na azyl vzťahujúce sa k určitému územiu a určenie štátu zodpovedného za preskúmanie žiadosti o azyl Úvod V súčasnosti je medzinárodné spoločenstvo konfrontované utečeneckými krízami, ktoré sužujú viaceré kontinenty. Výročná správa UNHCR Global Trends Forced Displacement 2015 1 uvádza, že počet utečencov v roku 2015 predstavoval hodnotu 21,3 mil. a počet žiadateľov o azyl tvorilo 3,2 mil. osôb. Význam medzinárodného utečeneckého práva a migrácie aj v dôsledku súčasných utečeneckých kríz narastá, čo sa prejavilo prijatím Newyorskej deklarácia pre utečencov a migrantov. 2 Príprava a prijatie nových medzinárodných dokumentov v tejto oblasti vyžaduje analýzu prameňov práva, ktoré výrazne ovplyvnili formovanie tohto odvetia medzinárodného práva. Pri pohľade do minulosti zistíme, že v roku 2017 si pripomíname okrúhle výročie prijatia alebo platnosti niekoľkých významných medzinárodných dohovorov a deklarácií upravujúcich problematiku postavenia utečencov a žiadateľov o azyl. V oblasti medzinárodného utečeneckého práva došlo v roku 1967 k prijatiu Protokolu o právnom postavení utečencov 3 (ďalej len "Protokol") a Deklarácie o územnom azyle 4 (ďalej len "Deklarácia"). Tento rok uplynulo štyridsať rokov od uskutočnenia Konferencie OSN o územnom azyle (ďalej len "Konferencia"), na ktorej došlo k predstaveniu Návrhu dohovoru o územnom azyle. 5 V oblasti azylového práva Európskej únie bol od roku 1997 v platnosti Dohovor určujúci štát zodpovedný za preskúmanie žiadostí o azyl podaných v jednom z členských štátov Európskeho spoločenstva 6 , známy ako tzv. "Dublinský dohovor". Napriek tomu, že Dublinský dohovor je od roku 2003 nahradený nariadením, zohral významnú úlohu pri formovaní Spoločného európskeho azylového systému (ďalej len "CEAS") a jeho základné ustanovenia sú stále v platnosti v podobe dnešného nariadenia Európskeho parlamentu a Rady č.604/2013.
The international community of the 21st century is marked by armed conflicts, violence, human rig... more The international community of the 21st century is marked by armed conflicts, violence, human rights violations or disasters. One of the negative impacts is the high increase of internally displaced persons. At the end of 2016, 31.3 million new cases of internally displaced persons were recorded as a result of conflicts or natural disasters. The international community is responding to the issue of internally displaced persons by adopting legal documents of predominantly soft-law nature. The main international instruments in this area are the UN Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, the African Union Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa, the Protocol on the Protection and Assistance to Internally Displaced Persons adopted by the States of the International Conference of the Great Lakes Region. Practice shows that the longer the internal displacement takes place, the greater the risk of discrimination and violation of human rights.
Disasters have been the object of public international law since the beginning of the 20th centur... more Disasters have been the object of public international law since the beginning of the 20th century, which may be of natural or man-made origin. Negative effects of disasters include significant numbers of casualties, internally displaced persons and extensive material damage. In the article, the author focuses on the brief characteristics of the applicable norms of public international law in the event of disasters and their selected aspects. Prior to the analysis of selected aspects, the emphasis is on the historical events that have affected the current legal framework. Public international law has in the last few years increasingly devoted its attention to disaster issues, particularly as a result of their increased occurrence, intensity and complexity. As a result, the establishment of international disaster response law (IDRL), which, although currently consists of mostly non-legally binding documents, has the potential in the future to create a comprehensive international system. Within the specific aspects of disasters, the author analyses the entities active in the provision of international aid during disasters and sources of public international applicable in this area. Keywords: disasters, public international law, international disaster response law, sources of public international law, subjects of public international law.
Natural and industrial disasters represent one of the biggest humanitarian challenges of the 21st... more Natural and industrial disasters represent one of the biggest humanitarian challenges of the 21st century, which repeatedly cause negative consequences on human lives, property, environment and are cause of forced displacement. The consequences of natural and industrial disasters are mainly manifested within the territory of individual States, however it is nothing extraordinary, if they cross the borders of one State or take place in international territories. One of the key international aspects of natural and industrial disasters is the application of State sovereignty. The main emphasis of the paper is on the consent of the affected State to external assistance. Exceptionally, there is a repudiation of consent to external humanitarian assistance, which has a major impact on the protection and assistance of people affected by disasters, especially if the State does not have sufficient capacity or if is unwilling to cope with the consequences of disasters.
Thesis Chapters by Lucia Bakošová
International areas are an important part of international law. Those are places, which cannot be... more International areas are an important part of international law. Those are places, which cannot be appropriated by any state. However, there are areas, whose legal status is not unambiguous. This is the reason we dedicate increased attention to the Arctic, which has a potential of gaining a status of international area. The aim of this thesis is to clarify the legal status of the Arctic, especially the territorial claims of states, the problem of sailing through the Arctic, the impact of the law of the sea and the delimitation of continental shelf. We devote a significant part of this thesis to the Arctic Council, whose creation is the result of cooperation among the arctic states and the indigenous people. In the closing section we analyze the impact of the European Union to the Arctic.
Present time is characterised by numerous armed conflicts, violence, natural disasters, which hav... more Present time is characterised by numerous armed conflicts, violence, natural disasters, which have a profound effect on the high level of migration. Year 2015 set a record in the number of forcibly displaced persons to more than 65 million people. Such group of people includes refugees, asylum seekers and internally displaced persons. International law makes between these groups major distinctions, especially on the rights and protection that comes with each status. In the case of refugees, the most important document is the Convention and Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees. On the regional level, crucial role plays the Organisation of African Unity Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa and the Cartagena Declaration on Refugees. Above mentioned documents provide basic legal framework that defines a refugee, his position, as well as its rights and obligations. The last important document in the field of international refugee law and migration was adopted on 19 September 2016 at the UN, the New York Declaration on Refugees and Migrants. The addressing of the refugee crisis has shown that states are not able to solve problem alone. For this reason, the irreplaceable role has the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Refugee crisis, which in 2015 hit the European continent revealed weak spots of the Common European Asylum System, but also the unwillingness of the EU Member States to fight the crisis together. Due to the crisis, the European Commission drafted numerous proposals to reform the present Common European Asylum System. EU Member States in addressing the current refugee crisis may be inspired by the migration law and policy of Australia, which as one of the few countries recorded a decline of asylum applications. However, it is necessary to avoid shortages, which are present in the Australian Migration Law, especially in area of fundamental human rights of asylum seekers.
Conference Presentations by Lucia Bakošová
Uploads
Papers by Lucia Bakošová
Thesis Chapters by Lucia Bakošová
Conference Presentations by Lucia Bakošová