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Bryan Higgins

SUNY Plattsburgh, Geography and Planning, Emeritus

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C. Michael Hall

University of Canterbury/Te Whare Wānanga o Waitaha

Kansas State University

Armando Marques-Guedes

UNL - New University of Lisbon

University of York

Dalhousie University

Mehmet Penpecioglu

İZMİR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

KU Leuven

The University of Newcastle

Tamsen Emerson Hert

University of Wyoming

University of Oregon

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Papers by Bryan Higgins

Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe Scenarios

The Global Structure of the Nature Tourism Industry: Ecotourists, Tour Operators, and Local Businesses

Nature tourism and ecotourism are rapidly growing components of the international tourism industr... more Nature tourism and ecotourism are rapidly growing components of the international tourism industry. Although a substantial research literature has developed on this topic, few works have systematically examined the increasing number of nature tour operators or the global business structure of the nature tourism industry. In response, this article reviews the literature regarding the global dimensions of the nature tourism industry, outlines a more comprehensive framework for understanding the global business organization of this sector, and sketches a geography of nature tour operators based within the United States. Nature tourism and ecotourism have recently become high growth areas within the travel industry (

Ecotourism Market and Industry Structure

While ecotourism continues to be a hot topic of academic inquiry, most research on this subject h... more While ecotourism continues to be a hot topic of academic inquiry, most research on this subject has utilized a natural or social science framework for analysis. As a result, less systematic attention has been given to questions regarding the market or business structure of ecotourism. In addition, although parks and nature sites from around the world have been investigated, very little systematic attention has been given to the global organization of the nature tourism industry or the way in which the international business structure shapes the identity and organization of ecotourism (Higgins 1996). Furthermore, while a few studies have examined the demographics, preferences, and/or motivations of ecotourists, such studies have been limited to specific national markets or particular ecotourism sites. Thus, although commentators have noted significant differences between continental and national markets (Blangy 1995 and Hanneberg 1995), little systematic attention has been given to a geographical analysis of ecotourism markets or destinations. Finally, despite the explicit role of environmental values in ecotourism, very few studies have explored the theoretical issues involved with environmental values and the market for ecotourism. In response to the paucity of market and industry research, this chapter will survey the current literature in these sub-fields and discuss the impact of these distinct topics on the planning and management of ecotourism.

Political Ecology of Ecotourism and Global Regimes of Nature

During the past forty years ecotourism has grown rapidly and become an American brand of tourism ... more During the past forty years ecotourism has grown rapidly and become an American brand of tourism in the international travel market with distinct icons, a global economic structure and a diversity of planning impacts . While it is clear that planning has played a crucial role in this global development, the scope and depth of assessment in the planning literature has been rather limited. Thus, even though the titles of ecotourism articles and books include the word "planning," very few of these studies have been written by planners, addressed the current practice of planning insitu or considered a multicultural perspective of planning as argued by Sandercock . Another significant feature of the ecotourism literature is the segregated character of its promotional networks. On the one hand, many authors presume ecotourism should be supported and thus implicitly function as ecotourism developers, who promote ecotourism and an American regime of nature at the same time they ignore and exclude critical global voices on this topic. However, a vast array of research has documented serious social, cultural, economic, and planning issues that have arisen with ecotourism. While 'schools of thought' on particular issues are common in every professional field, what is unusual about this situation is that despite a highly charged dissensus, the ecotourism promoters have not only ignored the critics but also legitimated an American regime of nature with minimal consideration of planning issues. In contrast to this ecotourism branding, this paper will investigate the political ecology of ecotourism in the world today.

"Ecotourism-related Tour Operators"

chapter in Encyclopedia of Ecotourism, David Weaver ed. 2001 CAB International, UK.

A preliminary step for understanding ecotourism-related operators is to review research about tou... more A preliminary step for understanding ecotourism-related operators is to review research about tour operators in general within the tourism literature. Remarkably, even though tour operators have become major actors within the global travel industry, only a few studies have investigated their character and most of these are somewhat dated (three of the more recent studies, Urry (1990) indirectly analyzed tour operators and the expansion of the package tour industry, with special attention to Europe and the UK. He argued that specialization in the tourism industry, that would include the establishment of ecotour operators, had changed tour production from a concentrated, massmarket complex into a more segmented, post-Fordist economic system. With a similar European focus, Vellas and Becherel (1995) have a section on tour operators in their review of international tourism from an economic perspective. Their coverage of tour operators provides detailed information and excellent analysis of the rise and fall of the major operators in select European countries, but almost nothing about tour operators in other world regions. Ioannides (1998) seminal study takes a critical look at tour operators as it sketches the evolution of the package tour industry, identifies the contemporary activities of tour operators and reports on a pilot survey of US specialist tour operators that includes ecotours. Ioannides observes that tour operators are key manipulators of tourist origin-destination flows who have displayed little loyalty to specific destinations. Overall, given the limited consideration of tour operators within the tourism literature, comparisons of ecotourism-related operators with the tourism industry as a whole will be limited.

Attitude strength and social acceptability of cormorant control programs on Lake Champlain - Sponsored by Lake Champlain Sea Grant

Journal of Great Lakes Research , 2012

Federal and state wildlife managers have endeavored to reduce populations of cormorants on Lake C... more Federal and state wildlife managers have endeavored to reduce populations of cormorants on Lake Champlain since 1999. These efforts have relied on the presumption of a nuisance species attitude toward cormorants shared among the public. We employed the concept of attitude strength to explore beliefs, sentiments, and intentions that different recreational groups hold toward cormorants, and to gauge the social acceptability of population control on Lake Champlain. Results confirmed that people generally agreed with the nuisance species label. Overall attitudes toward cormorants leaned toward the negative side, and respondents tended to support hazing of nesting birds, egg oiling, and even state-sponsored shooting as population control measures. Strongest objections to cormorants came from anglers and lakeshore homeowners, whereas boaters and conservation group members were more ambivalent about cormorants and population control measures. Moreover, when analyzing attitude strength dimensions, results showed that overall ambivalence about cormorants was prevalent, negative attitudes may be based in cultural differences and social class, and those with the strongest negative attitudes may be fitting knowledge to attitudes.

Belize Visitor Survey 2000 -Sponsored by the The International Ecotourism Society and the Programme for Belize

Belize Visitor Survey Administration and Quality of the Information A total of 1023 foreign visit... more Belize Visitor Survey Administration and Quality of the Information
A total of 1023 foreign visitors to Belize were asked to complete a written survey as they waited to leave Belize in the departure lounge at Goldson International Airport in Belize City during the year 2000. All of the surveys were administered by Anna of Orange Walk and Calvin of Belize City. Dr. Bryan Higgins from The International Ecotourism Society trained the surveyors and Dr. Vincent Palacio from the Programme for Belize supervized their work at the Goldson International Airport. The visitor exit surveys were collected during both the high tourism season in March (60% of the total) and the low tourism season of June and July (40% of the total) to assure that the results reflect the character of visitors during both seasons. This survey did not sample visitors who left Belize through any of the border crossings from Belize to Mexico, Honduras or Guatamala. The visitor exit surveys were collected during every day of the week and throughout the entire day to assure that all the departing international flights were proportionally sampled in the process. On each day the survey was conducted, every departing foreign resident was asked to fill out a copy. Based upon the daily reporting of the surveyors as well as two days of independent observation by Dr. Higgins, it is estimated that the response rate for this survey was 90%. Given that the total number of visitors departing Belize was approximately 100,000 for the year, for questions in the survey that simply show the percentage of responses from 0 to 100% the 95 percent confidence level is estimated to be plus or minus 3%. Please note the statistical summaries for individual questions may total over 100% due to rounding.

The Place of Housing Programs and Class in Latin American Cities - the development of Managua, Nicaragua before 1980 - Fulbright Central American Research Grant

Economic Geography, 1990

Geographical Revolutions and Revolutionary Geographies Nature, Space and Place in the Urban Development of Nicaragua - Fulbright Central American Research Grant

Adirondack Tourism, Local Communities and the Environment -Wildlife Conservation Society Grant

Tourism is one of the leading economic activities in the Adirondack Park and yet little research,... more Tourism is one of the leading economic activities in the Adirondack Park and yet little research, planning or public policy has addressed its development. This report provides an in-depth look at Adirondack tourism opportunities from the perspective of 258 business owners in sixteen communities in the central and western Adirondack Park. It comes at a time when communities, regional organizations and state agencies are exploring new approaches to economic development for the Adirondacks. The local business and community-based information contained herein can help to inform and refocus initiatives for tourism planning, community development, business assistance, environmental protection and improving recreation opportunities throughout the Adirondacks.

Economic Growth and Grassroots Participation: The Paradoxes of Progressive Planning

Critical analyses are seldom performed of North American cities which have experienced radical so... more Critical analyses are seldom performed of North American cities which have experienced radical social change. This study will consider the planning processes in one such city - Burlington, Vermont. The stratgies will be sketched that were initiated by the city's Socialist mayor. A citizen based approach is outlined which was used to increase residential participation in planning the future growth of the city. A brief look at some of the contradictions of this administration will identify paradoxes of progressive planning.

Geography of Environmentalism in Water Resources Planning

Socioeconomic Profile and the Structure of the Tourism Economy in the Lake Champlain Basin - US EPA grant

This research project was funded by the US Environmental Protection Agency to identify the socio-... more

Feasibility of Champlain Canal Aquatic Nuisance Species Barrier Options - Sponsored by US NOAA

by Bryan Higgins and Mark Malchoff

Lake Champlain Sea Grant , 2005

Executive Summary The present-day Champlain Canal is 60 miles long and runs between the Erie Ca... more Executive Summary
The present-day Champlain Canal is 60 miles long and runs between the Erie Canal at Waterford in the south and the southernmost point of Lake Champlain at Whitehall to the north. With its inception in 1823 the canal connected previously unconnected drainages – including the Hudson-Mohawk and the Champlain. Organisms thought to have invaded Lake Champlain via this route include sea lamprey, water chestnut, zebra mussel, and white perch. Control efforts associated with 3 of these species in the lake are expected to exceed $16 million for the period 1982-2008. Current knowledge of aquatic nuisance species (ANS) confirms that new species will continue to invade Lake Champlain via the Champlain Canal, by boat trailers, aquarium trade, bait usage, and aquatic plant nursery operations. A diversity of opinions among the many stake holders and opinion leaders exists about the importance of these vectors and the degree of the ANS problem in the Champlain Basin. While many stakeholders expressed concerns over the invasive species issues, some people didn't feel that the canal posed a significant risk as an invasives pathway. Still others didn't feel the canal was the most important pathway relative to boat trailers, bait trade, aquaria/pet trade, and other vectors. Despite these opinions, the available literature argues that the canal represents the single largest known vector of Lake Champlain ANS. While an optimal barrier would be 100% effective at preventing transport through the canal, this should not be the criterion for success. Even an 80% reduction in the probability that a species could enter Lake Champlain via the Champlain Canal represents significant progress in protecting the ecology of the Champlain basin. Six canal barrier ideas were proposed and examined from the standpoint of feasibility. Preliminary costs and benefits were also described. The six ANS barrier ideas were:
Alternative One: Do Nothing (i.e. no change in canal engineering or operations) Alternative Two: Close the Champlain Canal Alternative Three: Physical/mechanical modification of canal and or locks. Modifications would consist of limited hydrologic separation with provisions for overland transport of recreational vessels, and use of graving dock or seasonal lockage restrictions for commercial vessels. Alternative Four: Behavioral fish barriers (electrical, bubble, sound, strobe light - alone and in combinations) Alternative Five: Chemical/Water Quality Barrier Alternative Six: Biological Barrier
Alternative Three is seen as the most effective at stemming the flow of canal-borne invasives. This alternative offers the best protection against all types of ANS. Behavioral barriers (sound, bubble, electrical, light – alone or in combination) represent a good second choice, though no protection against plants and invertebrates will be realized. Sound decisions as to the fate of any Champlain Canal ANS barrier will require further analysis. Well designed socio-economic surveys are needed to better understand current canal usage and importance. Surveys of this type should also enable decision makers to formulate “what-if” scenarios relative to boat traffic impacts caused by ANS barriers and/or canal operational changes. Engineering studies are needed to predict the physical viability and costs associated with physical and behavior barriers. The construction of graving docks, boat hoists, behavior barriers, feeder canal diversions, etc. would require significant new investment in the

4 NYS Canal System. The costs associated with such new infrastructure need to be detailed before any serious deliberation on the problem of canal/ANS could begin. By their very nature, canals serve as unnatural watershed connections. Global trade and 21
st
century travel and tourism will combine to deliver many new invasive species across several watersheds to Lake Champlain in future decades. If no action is taken, the future will see new invasive fish, plant, and invertebrate colonizations in Lake Champlain.

Lake Champlain's Future: A Community Based Strategy for Environmental Policy Development- US EPA Grant

by Bryan Higgins, Tom Dietz, and Richard Kujawa

Lake Champlain Economic Database Project - US EPA grant

by Bryan Higgins and Richard Kujawa

Lake Champlain: Public Awareness, Opinions and Preferences - US EPA grant

The Sanderistas and a Metamorphosis of Burlington, Vermont

Places, 1986

Urban Indians: Patterns and Transformations

Journal of Cultural Geography, 1982

For centuries American Indians have been an object of Western fascination. All too often this fas... more For centuries American Indians have been an object of Western fascination. All too often this fascination has been an invented view of Indian people. This is especially evident with the recent movement of Indians to urban areas within the United States and Canada. Not only has this movement been ignored by society in general but it has also received almost no comment in the geographical literature. In this analysis the complex character of urban Indian communities is sketched, a variety of interpretations of these communities is outlined and the implications for planning and public policy are examined. The recent emergence of Indian organizations provides an innovative alternative for planning and public policy—cultural planning for urban redevelopment.

Indian Reservations in the United States: Territory, Sovereignty, and Socioeconomic Change (Book review)

Amid the prefabricated multiculturalism of the media we seldom hear about the lives of American I... more Amid the prefabricated multiculturalism of the media we seldom hear about the lives of American Indians or the forces that shape land use and economic development on Indian reservations in the United States today. Given this absence of public attention and paucity of academic works about Indian reservations, this insightful and detailed study by Klaus Frantz should be recognized as a significant landmark. Since Frantz was a professor of geography at the University of Innsbruck in Austria, his study was originally published in German in 1991 and, with assistance from Dr. Greeley Stahl, subsequently translated by the author into English. It is based upon over a decade of research that culminated in the mid 1980s. A short epilogue updates the study on select topics from the 1990s, but the historical coverage in the book basically stops with the status of reservations in the early 1980s. Finally, as Frantz notes clearly, although the book provides a national survey of the basic development and character of Indian reservations, most of the detailed examples are focused on the Gila River, Hualapai, and Fort Apache reservations in Arizona. The book starts with a short survey of American Indians in geographic and related research. This introductory chapter sketches Frantz's sources including official tribal and federal agency data as well as archival material. At the outset, Frantz also explains, " The main part of this study has to do with the reservation economy.. .. " (p. 8). In this regard it should be noted that while he does an excellent job reviewing the geography literature, Frantz does not review systematically the related economics or development literature. While it will be of little concern to neophytes, the limited attention given to those other frameworks may be more problematic for advanced readers. The second chapter takes on the substantial challenge of summarizing two hundred years of Indian policy in the United States in 28 pages. This highly compressed administrative history is clearly outlined, however, and focuses on describing the distinct programs and changing rationales of the US government. It includes significant criticism of many of these government policy regimes, primarily based upon the author's assessment of cultural differences. For whatever reason, this chapter says little about Indian policy after 1960. Thus, Frantz does not discuss the rise of the American Indian Movement, the subsequent armed conflict at Wounded Knee, and the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988 in this context. The third chapter portrays the historical evolution and spatial distribution of reservations within the US. It provides a basic overview of the legal basis of land on Indian reservations including US government treaties, purchases, gifts, executive orders, and acts of Congress. It does an excellent job of describing the complex and diverse patterns of land ownership currently found on Indian reservations by integrating a series of detailed maps, charts, and textual analyses. In fact, the development of land ownership and land use patterns on reservations appears to be the core of Frantz's academic interest. Ch. 4 surveys the changing patterns in the spatial distribution of American Indian populations. This demographic analysis examines population distributions among reservations as well as in selected urban areas. In this section Frantz not only presents empirical patterns, but also examines critically the changing census definitions and other issues that influence the quality of information about the populations. Finally, this section also compares age-sex pyramids among racial groups in the US as well as birth and death rates for selected years. The next chapter examines the socioeconomic status of American Indians by presenting data on housing, labor, and education from 1980. It includes numerous tables, charts, and maps that highlight the geographic distribution and comparative racial indicators.

Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe Scenarios

The Global Structure of the Nature Tourism Industry: Ecotourists, Tour Operators, and Local Businesses

Nature tourism and ecotourism are rapidly growing components of the international tourism industr... more Nature tourism and ecotourism are rapidly growing components of the international tourism industry. Although a substantial research literature has developed on this topic, few works have systematically examined the increasing number of nature tour operators or the global business structure of the nature tourism industry. In response, this article reviews the literature regarding the global dimensions of the nature tourism industry, outlines a more comprehensive framework for understanding the global business organization of this sector, and sketches a geography of nature tour operators based within the United States. Nature tourism and ecotourism have recently become high growth areas within the travel industry (

Ecotourism Market and Industry Structure

While ecotourism continues to be a hot topic of academic inquiry, most research on this subject h... more While ecotourism continues to be a hot topic of academic inquiry, most research on this subject has utilized a natural or social science framework for analysis. As a result, less systematic attention has been given to questions regarding the market or business structure of ecotourism. In addition, although parks and nature sites from around the world have been investigated, very little systematic attention has been given to the global organization of the nature tourism industry or the way in which the international business structure shapes the identity and organization of ecotourism (Higgins 1996). Furthermore, while a few studies have examined the demographics, preferences, and/or motivations of ecotourists, such studies have been limited to specific national markets or particular ecotourism sites. Thus, although commentators have noted significant differences between continental and national markets (Blangy 1995 and Hanneberg 1995), little systematic attention has been given to a geographical analysis of ecotourism markets or destinations. Finally, despite the explicit role of environmental values in ecotourism, very few studies have explored the theoretical issues involved with environmental values and the market for ecotourism. In response to the paucity of market and industry research, this chapter will survey the current literature in these sub-fields and discuss the impact of these distinct topics on the planning and management of ecotourism.

Political Ecology of Ecotourism and Global Regimes of Nature

During the past forty years ecotourism has grown rapidly and become an American brand of tourism ... more During the past forty years ecotourism has grown rapidly and become an American brand of tourism in the international travel market with distinct icons, a global economic structure and a diversity of planning impacts . While it is clear that planning has played a crucial role in this global development, the scope and depth of assessment in the planning literature has been rather limited. Thus, even though the titles of ecotourism articles and books include the word "planning," very few of these studies have been written by planners, addressed the current practice of planning insitu or considered a multicultural perspective of planning as argued by Sandercock . Another significant feature of the ecotourism literature is the segregated character of its promotional networks. On the one hand, many authors presume ecotourism should be supported and thus implicitly function as ecotourism developers, who promote ecotourism and an American regime of nature at the same time they ignore and exclude critical global voices on this topic. However, a vast array of research has documented serious social, cultural, economic, and planning issues that have arisen with ecotourism. While 'schools of thought' on particular issues are common in every professional field, what is unusual about this situation is that despite a highly charged dissensus, the ecotourism promoters have not only ignored the critics but also legitimated an American regime of nature with minimal consideration of planning issues. In contrast to this ecotourism branding, this paper will investigate the political ecology of ecotourism in the world today.

"Ecotourism-related Tour Operators"

chapter in Encyclopedia of Ecotourism, David Weaver ed. 2001 CAB International, UK.

A preliminary step for understanding ecotourism-related operators is to review research about tou... more A preliminary step for understanding ecotourism-related operators is to review research about tour operators in general within the tourism literature. Remarkably, even though tour operators have become major actors within the global travel industry, only a few studies have investigated their character and most of these are somewhat dated (three of the more recent studies, Urry (1990) indirectly analyzed tour operators and the expansion of the package tour industry, with special attention to Europe and the UK. He argued that specialization in the tourism industry, that would include the establishment of ecotour operators, had changed tour production from a concentrated, massmarket complex into a more segmented, post-Fordist economic system. With a similar European focus, Vellas and Becherel (1995) have a section on tour operators in their review of international tourism from an economic perspective. Their coverage of tour operators provides detailed information and excellent analysis of the rise and fall of the major operators in select European countries, but almost nothing about tour operators in other world regions. Ioannides (1998) seminal study takes a critical look at tour operators as it sketches the evolution of the package tour industry, identifies the contemporary activities of tour operators and reports on a pilot survey of US specialist tour operators that includes ecotours. Ioannides observes that tour operators are key manipulators of tourist origin-destination flows who have displayed little loyalty to specific destinations. Overall, given the limited consideration of tour operators within the tourism literature, comparisons of ecotourism-related operators with the tourism industry as a whole will be limited.

Attitude strength and social acceptability of cormorant control programs on Lake Champlain - Sponsored by Lake Champlain Sea Grant

Journal of Great Lakes Research , 2012

Federal and state wildlife managers have endeavored to reduce populations of cormorants on Lake C... more Federal and state wildlife managers have endeavored to reduce populations of cormorants on Lake Champlain since 1999. These efforts have relied on the presumption of a nuisance species attitude toward cormorants shared among the public. We employed the concept of attitude strength to explore beliefs, sentiments, and intentions that different recreational groups hold toward cormorants, and to gauge the social acceptability of population control on Lake Champlain. Results confirmed that people generally agreed with the nuisance species label. Overall attitudes toward cormorants leaned toward the negative side, and respondents tended to support hazing of nesting birds, egg oiling, and even state-sponsored shooting as population control measures. Strongest objections to cormorants came from anglers and lakeshore homeowners, whereas boaters and conservation group members were more ambivalent about cormorants and population control measures. Moreover, when analyzing attitude strength dimensions, results showed that overall ambivalence about cormorants was prevalent, negative attitudes may be based in cultural differences and social class, and those with the strongest negative attitudes may be fitting knowledge to attitudes.

Belize Visitor Survey 2000 -Sponsored by the The International Ecotourism Society and the Programme for Belize

Belize Visitor Survey Administration and Quality of the Information A total of 1023 foreign visit... more Belize Visitor Survey Administration and Quality of the Information
A total of 1023 foreign visitors to Belize were asked to complete a written survey as they waited to leave Belize in the departure lounge at Goldson International Airport in Belize City during the year 2000. All of the surveys were administered by Anna of Orange Walk and Calvin of Belize City. Dr. Bryan Higgins from The International Ecotourism Society trained the surveyors and Dr. Vincent Palacio from the Programme for Belize supervized their work at the Goldson International Airport. The visitor exit surveys were collected during both the high tourism season in March (60% of the total) and the low tourism season of June and July (40% of the total) to assure that the results reflect the character of visitors during both seasons. This survey did not sample visitors who left Belize through any of the border crossings from Belize to Mexico, Honduras or Guatamala. The visitor exit surveys were collected during every day of the week and throughout the entire day to assure that all the departing international flights were proportionally sampled in the process. On each day the survey was conducted, every departing foreign resident was asked to fill out a copy. Based upon the daily reporting of the surveyors as well as two days of independent observation by Dr. Higgins, it is estimated that the response rate for this survey was 90%. Given that the total number of visitors departing Belize was approximately 100,000 for the year, for questions in the survey that simply show the percentage of responses from 0 to 100% the 95 percent confidence level is estimated to be plus or minus 3%. Please note the statistical summaries for individual questions may total over 100% due to rounding.

The Place of Housing Programs and Class in Latin American Cities - the development of Managua, Nicaragua before 1980 - Fulbright Central American Research Grant

Economic Geography, 1990

Geographical Revolutions and Revolutionary Geographies Nature, Space and Place in the Urban Development of Nicaragua - Fulbright Central American Research Grant

Adirondack Tourism, Local Communities and the Environment -Wildlife Conservation Society Grant

Tourism is one of the leading economic activities in the Adirondack Park and yet little research,... more Tourism is one of the leading economic activities in the Adirondack Park and yet little research, planning or public policy has addressed its development. This report provides an in-depth look at Adirondack tourism opportunities from the perspective of 258 business owners in sixteen communities in the central and western Adirondack Park. It comes at a time when communities, regional organizations and state agencies are exploring new approaches to economic development for the Adirondacks. The local business and community-based information contained herein can help to inform and refocus initiatives for tourism planning, community development, business assistance, environmental protection and improving recreation opportunities throughout the Adirondacks.

Economic Growth and Grassroots Participation: The Paradoxes of Progressive Planning

Critical analyses are seldom performed of North American cities which have experienced radical so... more Critical analyses are seldom performed of North American cities which have experienced radical social change. This study will consider the planning processes in one such city - Burlington, Vermont. The stratgies will be sketched that were initiated by the city's Socialist mayor. A citizen based approach is outlined which was used to increase residential participation in planning the future growth of the city. A brief look at some of the contradictions of this administration will identify paradoxes of progressive planning.

Geography of Environmentalism in Water Resources Planning

Socioeconomic Profile and the Structure of the Tourism Economy in the Lake Champlain Basin - US EPA grant

This research project was funded by the US Environmental Protection Agency to identify the socio-... more

Feasibility of Champlain Canal Aquatic Nuisance Species Barrier Options - Sponsored by US NOAA

by Bryan Higgins and Mark Malchoff

Lake Champlain Sea Grant , 2005

Executive Summary The present-day Champlain Canal is 60 miles long and runs between the Erie Ca... more Executive Summary
The present-day Champlain Canal is 60 miles long and runs between the Erie Canal at Waterford in the south and the southernmost point of Lake Champlain at Whitehall to the north. With its inception in 1823 the canal connected previously unconnected drainages – including the Hudson-Mohawk and the Champlain. Organisms thought to have invaded Lake Champlain via this route include sea lamprey, water chestnut, zebra mussel, and white perch. Control efforts associated with 3 of these species in the lake are expected to exceed $16 million for the period 1982-2008. Current knowledge of aquatic nuisance species (ANS) confirms that new species will continue to invade Lake Champlain via the Champlain Canal, by boat trailers, aquarium trade, bait usage, and aquatic plant nursery operations. A diversity of opinions among the many stake holders and opinion leaders exists about the importance of these vectors and the degree of the ANS problem in the Champlain Basin. While many stakeholders expressed concerns over the invasive species issues, some people didn't feel that the canal posed a significant risk as an invasives pathway. Still others didn't feel the canal was the most important pathway relative to boat trailers, bait trade, aquaria/pet trade, and other vectors. Despite these opinions, the available literature argues that the canal represents the single largest known vector of Lake Champlain ANS. While an optimal barrier would be 100% effective at preventing transport through the canal, this should not be the criterion for success. Even an 80% reduction in the probability that a species could enter Lake Champlain via the Champlain Canal represents significant progress in protecting the ecology of the Champlain basin. Six canal barrier ideas were proposed and examined from the standpoint of feasibility. Preliminary costs and benefits were also described. The six ANS barrier ideas were:
Alternative One: Do Nothing (i.e. no change in canal engineering or operations) Alternative Two: Close the Champlain Canal Alternative Three: Physical/mechanical modification of canal and or locks. Modifications would consist of limited hydrologic separation with provisions for overland transport of recreational vessels, and use of graving dock or seasonal lockage restrictions for commercial vessels. Alternative Four: Behavioral fish barriers (electrical, bubble, sound, strobe light - alone and in combinations) Alternative Five: Chemical/Water Quality Barrier Alternative Six: Biological Barrier
Alternative Three is seen as the most effective at stemming the flow of canal-borne invasives. This alternative offers the best protection against all types of ANS. Behavioral barriers (sound, bubble, electrical, light – alone or in combination) represent a good second choice, though no protection against plants and invertebrates will be realized. Sound decisions as to the fate of any Champlain Canal ANS barrier will require further analysis. Well designed socio-economic surveys are needed to better understand current canal usage and importance. Surveys of this type should also enable decision makers to formulate “what-if” scenarios relative to boat traffic impacts caused by ANS barriers and/or canal operational changes. Engineering studies are needed to predict the physical viability and costs associated with physical and behavior barriers. The construction of graving docks, boat hoists, behavior barriers, feeder canal diversions, etc. would require significant new investment in the

4 NYS Canal System. The costs associated with such new infrastructure need to be detailed before any serious deliberation on the problem of canal/ANS could begin. By their very nature, canals serve as unnatural watershed connections. Global trade and 21
st
century travel and tourism will combine to deliver many new invasive species across several watersheds to Lake Champlain in future decades. If no action is taken, the future will see new invasive fish, plant, and invertebrate colonizations in Lake Champlain.

Lake Champlain's Future: A Community Based Strategy for Environmental Policy Development- US EPA Grant

by Bryan Higgins, Tom Dietz, and Richard Kujawa

Lake Champlain Economic Database Project - US EPA grant

by Bryan Higgins and Richard Kujawa

Lake Champlain: Public Awareness, Opinions and Preferences - US EPA grant

The Sanderistas and a Metamorphosis of Burlington, Vermont

Places, 1986

Urban Indians: Patterns and Transformations

Journal of Cultural Geography, 1982

For centuries American Indians have been an object of Western fascination. All too often this fas... more For centuries American Indians have been an object of Western fascination. All too often this fascination has been an invented view of Indian people. This is especially evident with the recent movement of Indians to urban areas within the United States and Canada. Not only has this movement been ignored by society in general but it has also received almost no comment in the geographical literature. In this analysis the complex character of urban Indian communities is sketched, a variety of interpretations of these communities is outlined and the implications for planning and public policy are examined. The recent emergence of Indian organizations provides an innovative alternative for planning and public policy—cultural planning for urban redevelopment.

Indian Reservations in the United States: Territory, Sovereignty, and Socioeconomic Change (Book review)

Amid the prefabricated multiculturalism of the media we seldom hear about the lives of American I... more Amid the prefabricated multiculturalism of the media we seldom hear about the lives of American Indians or the forces that shape land use and economic development on Indian reservations in the United States today. Given this absence of public attention and paucity of academic works about Indian reservations, this insightful and detailed study by Klaus Frantz should be recognized as a significant landmark. Since Frantz was a professor of geography at the University of Innsbruck in Austria, his study was originally published in German in 1991 and, with assistance from Dr. Greeley Stahl, subsequently translated by the author into English. It is based upon over a decade of research that culminated in the mid 1980s. A short epilogue updates the study on select topics from the 1990s, but the historical coverage in the book basically stops with the status of reservations in the early 1980s. Finally, as Frantz notes clearly, although the book provides a national survey of the basic development and character of Indian reservations, most of the detailed examples are focused on the Gila River, Hualapai, and Fort Apache reservations in Arizona. The book starts with a short survey of American Indians in geographic and related research. This introductory chapter sketches Frantz's sources including official tribal and federal agency data as well as archival material. At the outset, Frantz also explains, " The main part of this study has to do with the reservation economy.. .. " (p. 8). In this regard it should be noted that while he does an excellent job reviewing the geography literature, Frantz does not review systematically the related economics or development literature. While it will be of little concern to neophytes, the limited attention given to those other frameworks may be more problematic for advanced readers. The second chapter takes on the substantial challenge of summarizing two hundred years of Indian policy in the United States in 28 pages. This highly compressed administrative history is clearly outlined, however, and focuses on describing the distinct programs and changing rationales of the US government. It includes significant criticism of many of these government policy regimes, primarily based upon the author's assessment of cultural differences. For whatever reason, this chapter says little about Indian policy after 1960. Thus, Frantz does not discuss the rise of the American Indian Movement, the subsequent armed conflict at Wounded Knee, and the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988 in this context. The third chapter portrays the historical evolution and spatial distribution of reservations within the US. It provides a basic overview of the legal basis of land on Indian reservations including US government treaties, purchases, gifts, executive orders, and acts of Congress. It does an excellent job of describing the complex and diverse patterns of land ownership currently found on Indian reservations by integrating a series of detailed maps, charts, and textual analyses. In fact, the development of land ownership and land use patterns on reservations appears to be the core of Frantz's academic interest. Ch. 4 surveys the changing patterns in the spatial distribution of American Indian populations. This demographic analysis examines population distributions among reservations as well as in selected urban areas. In this section Frantz not only presents empirical patterns, but also examines critically the changing census definitions and other issues that influence the quality of information about the populations. Finally, this section also compares age-sex pyramids among racial groups in the US as well as birth and death rates for selected years. The next chapter examines the socioeconomic status of American Indians by presenting data on housing, labor, and education from 1980. It includes numerous tables, charts, and maps that highlight the geographic distribution and comparative racial indicators.

GEG 332 Environmental Justice syllabus fall 2013

GEG 301 Global Planning syllabus fall 2013

Hawkins Hall This course focuses on the geographies of planning from a global perspective.

Yellowstone National Park - An American Empire Theme Park

Yellowstone as an American Empire Theme Park argument: The argument of the presentation is that Y... more Yellowstone as an American Empire Theme Park argument:
The argument of the presentation is that Yellowstone National Park has been misrepresented as the world’s first national park (Bogd Khan Mountain park in Mongolia has been noted as an earlier case) and glorified as a nationalist treasure of nature in the United States. Taking a political ecology perspective, this presentation argues that Yellowstone is better understood as an American theme park, since the image, operation and “bottom line” of Yellowstone has actually been driven and manipulated by private tourism businesses for the past 150 years and the “Anschutz empire” in its current phase. Furthermore, the geopolitical basis of this Yellowstone theme park is a vision of the global American Empire that has been shaped by the European invasion of the Americas and the intensive involvement of the United States War Department and related geopolitical notions. This includes the usually hidden removal of American Indians, complete disregard for the significance of the pristine myth in the creation of the Yellowstone landscape, the design and construction of tourism infrastructure and tourism management policies by the US War Department as well as an amazing manipulation of what nature actually is in this American empire theme park.

Belize Visitor Survey 2000.docx

Belize Visitor Survey Administration and Quality of the Information A total of 1023 foreign visit... more Belize Visitor Survey Administration and Quality of the Information
A total of 1023 foreign visitors to Belize were asked to complete a written survey as they waited to leave Belize in the departure lounge at Goldson International Airport in Belize City during the year 2000. All of the surveys were administered by Anna of Orange Walk and Calvin of Belize City. Dr. Bryan Higgins from The International Ecotourism Society trained the surveyors and Dr. Vincent Palacio from the Programme for Belize supervized their work at the Goldson International Airport. The visitor exit surveys were collected during both the high tourism season in March (60% of the total) and the low tourism season of June and July (40% of the total) to assure that the results reflect the character of visitors during both seasons. This survey did not sample visitors who left Belize through any of the border crossings from Belize to Mexico, Honduras or Guatamala. The visitor exit surveys were collected during every day of the week and throughout the entire day to assure that all the departing international flights were proportionally sampled in the process. On each day the survey was conducted, every departing foreign resident was asked to fill out a copy. Based upon the daily reporting of the surveyors as well as two days of independent observation by Dr. Higgins, it is estimated that the response rate for this survey was 90%. Given that the total number of visitors departing Belize was approximately 100,000 for the year, for questions in the survey that simply show the percentage of responses from 0 to 100% the 95 percent confidence level is estimated to be plus or minus 3%. Please note the statistical summaries for individual questions may total over 100% due to rounding.