The contents of this report reflect the views of the author(s), who are responsible for the facts... more The contents of this report reflect the views of the author(s), who are responsible for the facts and the accuracy of information presented herein. This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the Department of Transportation, University Transportation Centers Program and the Center for Infrastructure Engineering Studies UTC program at the University of Missouri-Rolla, in the interest of information exchange. The U.S. Government and Center for Infrastructure Engineering Studies assumes no liability for the contents or use thereof.
This project is aimed at graduate research training of students interested in pursuing careers in... more This project is aimed at graduate research training of students interested in pursuing careers in transportation areas. Each year, financial support was provided to recruit eight new graduate students interested in pursuing a doctoral degree in a transportation area. These students could pursue doctoral studies in any department at Missouri S&T. In departments where a master's degree is the highest degree awarded, students pursuing a master's degree with a thesis option will be considered. Areas stated in the goals, interests and objectives of the State Departments of Transportation and Missouri Department of Transportation in particular were considered for support in this project.
Usage the seismic reflection for study of the shallow complex voids bearing medium is the very ch... more Usage the seismic reflection for study of the shallow complex voids bearing medium is the very challenging problem. Development and successful application of the migration algorithms allowed significantly improving delineation of the complicated geological structures especially in the oil and gas exploration. We analyzed the modeling data to assess the feasibility of the 2D pre-stack common-shot split-step Fourier migration to locate the shallow underground local inhomogeneities such as voids filled with the host rock debris. Migration of the modeling data showed the clear image of the upper part of the void. However, an image of the lower interface is distorted with the artifacts caused by multiples formed inside the void.
Fracture detection and delineation is very important for salt mines operation because fracturing ... more Fracture detection and delineation is very important for salt mines operation because fracturing significantly increases the probability of failure of supporting pillars and overlaying water protective beds. Results of forward modeling studies confirmed the feasibility of georadar with a 400 MHz antenna to reliably detect the millimetric scale fracture. 3-D GPR data were acquired in the potash mine near the city of Solikamsk, Russia to evaluate the effectiveness of imaging technology to detect and delineate the fractures in heterogeneous salt rock. Continuous common-offset data were obtained at seven parallel profiles across the fracture exposed in the wall of a mine pillar. The pillar was 4.5 m thick and comprised of interbedded layers of salt rock and clay. The open millimetric scale subvertical fracture crosscuts the pillar at angle of 25°. Data were collected using commercial OKO georadar system (Logis, Russia) with a 400 MHz shielded antenna. ReflexW and OpendTect software were used for processing and interpretation of the 2-D radargrams and combined 3-D data set. The 3-D migration allowed generating a true image of subsurface structures and creating a spatial model of fractures. Using the image of known fracture as interpretation template, fracture having no surface evidence was detected.
An understanding of the structure and state of the rock mass surrounding underground openings in ... more An understanding of the structure and state of the rock mass surrounding underground openings in the potash mines is critically important for safe mining, planning the methods of extraction of an orebody, and preventing the influx of ground water. Continuous common offset ground penetrating radar (GPR) data were acquired in the potash mine operated by the Joint Stock Company (JSC) "Silvinit" (Russia) as part of an investigation of both pre-existing fractures exposed by mine workings and other anomalous geological structures. During the course of GPR investigation, the electrical properties of salt-bearing units were determined, site-specific data acquisition techniques and object-oriented data processing schemes adapted to the geological and geotechnical environment of the Upper Kama potash deposit were developed, and the methodology of 2-D and 3-D GPR data interpretation using interactive modeling was worked out. Open fractures and fault and fold features were successfully mapped using 2-D and 3-D GPR techniques. FK filtering significantly improved the reliability of fracture detection. Spatial models of mapped fractures were created using 3-D GPR imaging technique. Migration of the georadar data was required to obtain the true geometry of folded salt beds. The results of this GPR-based investigation demonstrate that the ground penetrating radar georadar method is capable of providing valuable information about deformation structures within the evaporite units of the Upper Kama potash deposit.
Two-dimensional (2-D) electrical resistivity data were acquired across and in proximity to active... more Two-dimensional (2-D) electrical resistivity data were acquired across and in proximity to active sinkholes at two Missouri Department of Transportation (MoDOT) highway-construction sites. Construction site #1 is located in Greene County, Missouri; site #2 is located in Jefferson County, Missouri. Two relatively dense grids ("1A" and "1B") of electrical resistivity data were acquired at Greene County site #1 as part of a geotechnical investigation of a proposed interchange. Several active sinkholes with exposed throat diameters on the order of 1.5 ft had been discovered during a routine visual inspection of the site, and the District Geologist decided that a geophysical investigation was warranted prior to routine boring. The primary objective of the electrical resistivity study was to determine if substantive air-filled karstic cavities were present in the subsurface. Secondary objectives were to estimate depth to bedrock and identify anomalous subsurface conditions that might compromise the integrity of the proposed intersection or complicate construction. The electrical resistivity data proved to be of significant utility. Substantive air-filled voids were not imaged on the resistivity profiles. A depth to bedrock structure contour map was generated for the site, and prominent clay-filled and apparently inactive karstic cavities were identified beneath segments of proposed new roadway. A relatively dense grid of electrical resistivity data was also acquired at Jefferson County site #2. These electrical resistivity data were acquired because a previously unmapped, oval-shaped, clay-filled, sinkhole (approximately 50 ft x 35 ft x 15 ft; length x width x height) near the centerline of the proposed southbound lanes effectively "emptied" overnight after overlying soil had been stripped by earth moving equipment. The supervising geologist authorized the acquisition of the geophysical data in order to image the subsurface immediately beneath and adjacent to the sinkhole. The primary concern was that the sinkhole was underlain by a large air-filled cavity. The interpretation of the resistivity data indicated the reactivated sinkhole was not underlain by a substantive cavity. Rather, the soil in the sinkhole appears to have "flowed" into the subsurface through solution-widened system of joints that do not underlie the sinkhole and probably do not pose a significant risk in terms of catastrophic collapse under load.
Sinkholes and the Engineering and Environmental Impacts of Karst, Sep 18, 2008
Electrical Resistivity profiles were acquired along three separate parallel traverses on a steepl... more Electrical Resistivity profiles were acquired along three separate parallel traverses on a steeply dipping slope at a construction site near Kansas City, Missouri. The intent was to determine variable depth to bedrock and differentiate the interlayered limestones and shales. This information in conjunction with boring data was necessary for optimum location of a foundation. The determination of depth to bedrock along the electrical resistivity traverses was complicated by several factors. First, eleven different formally-defined lithologic units (alternating limestones and shales) subcrop along the length of the traverses, so the top of rock is not defined by a fairly-consistent resistivity contour-value. Additionally, the limestone units do not thin gradually. Rather, they terminate abruptly as undercut scarps. The differentiation and mapping of the various subsurface lithologic units was also complicated because of variable water saturation along the length of the traverses. As a result, each lithologic unit is characterized by a range in electrical resistivities that vary depending upon the degree of saturation. The interpreted electrical resistivity profiles correlate well with the three borings that were acquired on-site and depth to water table control.
This project is aimed at graduate research training of students interested in pursuing careers in... more This project is aimed at graduate research training of students interested in pursuing careers in transportation areas. Each year, financial support was provided to recruit eight new graduate students interested in pursuing a doctoral degree in a transportation area. These students could pursue doctoral studies in any department at Missouri S&T. In departments where a master's degree is the highest degree awarded, students pursuing a master's degree with a thesis option will be considered. Areas stated in the goals, interests and objectives of the State Departments of Transportation and Missouri Department of Transportation in particular were considered for support in this project.
Four Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) profiles and borehole data were acquired on the fron... more Four Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) profiles and borehole data were acquired on the front face of the earth-filled dam and on the flanks, constituting Lake #1, in order to locate the seepage zone, the flow path, and to determine possible reasons of the seepage. The seepage, observed a year after the construction in the southwestern part of the lake, was severe and could cause further softening, slippage and erosion of soil, developing of pipe holes, increasing the water outflow and risk to the embankment integrity. The owner agreed to drain the lake in order to acquire geophysical and borehole data. Based on the analyses of the acquired ERT and borehole data, four solution-widened fracture zones trending from southwest to northeast were identified. It was concluded that the seepage pathway beneath the dam was through a solution-widened fracture zone, the top of which constituted the original stream channel.
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) profiles acquired during two separate field investigations are pre... more Ground penetrating radar (GPR) profiles acquired during two separate field investigations are presented. The intent is simply to illustrate that GPR can be used for rebar detection and investigation of abandoned gas station site to confirm whether the metal underground gasoline storage tanks had been removed. The objective of each investigation is summarized, accompanied by brief descriptions of the nature of the target of interest. The application of GPR to the investigations described in this paper is not new. However, the presentation and illustration of multiple applications of this imaging technology can be of interest for practitioners. Данные метода георадар, полученные на двух объектах представлены в данной работе. Целью публикации была простая иллюстрация возможностей использования метода для локации арматуры и при обследовании подготовленного на продажу участка бывшей бензозаправочной станции для подтверждения того что металлические баки, использованные при хранении бензин...
This article presents the results of a study of gold samples obtained by students during a practi... more This article presents the results of a study of gold samples obtained by students during a practical field trip in the summer of 2014. Placer gold samples retrieved from four rivers in southeast Siberia (Khakassia and Tyva territories) by panning and sluicing were described and analyzed compositionally by Scanning Electron Microscopy. There is evidence from grain flattening and morphology for significant variations in gold transport distance, both within and between sample locations. The composition and texture of gold is compared to similar studies in the Yukon, and it is inferred that most of the placer gold in the region originated from orogenic lode sources. This orogenic gold is of Devonian to Carboniferous age. There is also evidence for a contribution from igneous intrusionrelated bedrock gold, which is supported by the presence of granite, granodiorite and sienite intrusions of Devonian age. There is scope for further study, since relatively few grains were analyzed here. In addition, if compositional data of the prospective primary gold deposits can be obtained, there would be potential for more precise determination of provenance.
Symposium on the Application of Geophysics to Engineering and Environmental Problems 2010, 2010
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) profiles acquired during seven separate field investigations are p... more Ground penetrating radar (GPR) profiles acquired during seven separate field investigations are presented. The intent is simply to illustrate that GPR can be used to detect rebar, pre-tensioned tendons, deteriorated and/or detached concrete/fill, buried utilities, underground storage tanks, and buried foundations. The objective of each investigation is summarized, accompanied by brief descriptions of the nature of the target of interest. The application of GPR to the investigations described in this paper is not new. However, the presentation and illustration of multiple applications of this imaging technology in a single manuscript is somewhat unique.
Symposium on the Application of Geophysics to Engineering and Environmental Problems 2010, 2010
Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) data were acquired on the ground surface across an underg... more Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) data were acquired on the ground surface across an underground limestone mine access tunnel in an effort to characterize the roof rock. This investigation was conducted because simultaneous localized failure occurred on the ceiling of the access tunnel and elsewhere in the mine along a previously unknown northwest trending lineament. The interpretation of the ERT data indicates the limestone roof rock above the tunnel is dissected by several prominent clay-bearing near-vertical solution-widened fractures (joints or faults) that are not visually exposed on the ceiling of the tunnel. Roof rock failure in the mine access tunnel occurred at the intersection of projected lineament and one of the more prominent interpreted solution-widened fractures.
Symposium on the Application of Geophysics to Engineering and Environmental Problems 2010, 2010
Fracture detection and delineation is very important for salt mines operation because fracturing ... more Fracture detection and delineation is very important for salt mines operation because fracturing significantly increases the probability of failure of supporting pillars and overlaying water protective beds. Results of forward modeling studies confirmed the feasibility of georadar with a 400 MHz antenna to reliably detect the millimetric scale fracture. 3-D GPR data were acquired in the potash mine near the city of Solikamsk, Russia to evaluate the effectiveness of imaging technology to detect and delineate the fractures in heterogeneous salt rock. Continuous common-offset data were obtained at seven parallel profiles across the fracture exposed in the wall of a mine pillar. The pillar was 4.5 m thick and comprised of interbedded layers of salt rock and clay. The open millimetric scale subvertical fracture crosscuts the pillar at angle of 25°. Data were collected using commercial OKO georadar system (Logis, Russia) with a 400 MHz shielded antenna. ReflexW and OpendTect software were used for processing and interpretation of the 2-D radargrams and combined 3-D data set. The 3-D migration allowed generating a true image of subsurface structures and creating a spatial model of fractures. Using the image of known fracture as interpretation template, fracture having no surface evidence was detected.
The contents of this report reflect the views of the author(s), who are responsible for the facts... more The contents of this report reflect the views of the author(s), who are responsible for the facts and the accuracy of information presented herein. This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the Department of Transportation, University Transportation Centers Program and the Center for Infrastructure Engineering Studies UTC program at the University of Missouri-Rolla, in the interest of information exchange. The U.S. Government and Center for Infrastructure Engineering Studies assumes no liability for the contents or use thereof.
This project is aimed at graduate research training of students interested in pursuing careers in... more This project is aimed at graduate research training of students interested in pursuing careers in transportation areas. Each year, financial support was provided to recruit eight new graduate students interested in pursuing a doctoral degree in a transportation area. These students could pursue doctoral studies in any department at Missouri S&T. In departments where a master's degree is the highest degree awarded, students pursuing a master's degree with a thesis option will be considered. Areas stated in the goals, interests and objectives of the State Departments of Transportation and Missouri Department of Transportation in particular were considered for support in this project.
Usage the seismic reflection for study of the shallow complex voids bearing medium is the very ch... more Usage the seismic reflection for study of the shallow complex voids bearing medium is the very challenging problem. Development and successful application of the migration algorithms allowed significantly improving delineation of the complicated geological structures especially in the oil and gas exploration. We analyzed the modeling data to assess the feasibility of the 2D pre-stack common-shot split-step Fourier migration to locate the shallow underground local inhomogeneities such as voids filled with the host rock debris. Migration of the modeling data showed the clear image of the upper part of the void. However, an image of the lower interface is distorted with the artifacts caused by multiples formed inside the void.
Fracture detection and delineation is very important for salt mines operation because fracturing ... more Fracture detection and delineation is very important for salt mines operation because fracturing significantly increases the probability of failure of supporting pillars and overlaying water protective beds. Results of forward modeling studies confirmed the feasibility of georadar with a 400 MHz antenna to reliably detect the millimetric scale fracture. 3-D GPR data were acquired in the potash mine near the city of Solikamsk, Russia to evaluate the effectiveness of imaging technology to detect and delineate the fractures in heterogeneous salt rock. Continuous common-offset data were obtained at seven parallel profiles across the fracture exposed in the wall of a mine pillar. The pillar was 4.5 m thick and comprised of interbedded layers of salt rock and clay. The open millimetric scale subvertical fracture crosscuts the pillar at angle of 25°. Data were collected using commercial OKO georadar system (Logis, Russia) with a 400 MHz shielded antenna. ReflexW and OpendTect software were used for processing and interpretation of the 2-D radargrams and combined 3-D data set. The 3-D migration allowed generating a true image of subsurface structures and creating a spatial model of fractures. Using the image of known fracture as interpretation template, fracture having no surface evidence was detected.
An understanding of the structure and state of the rock mass surrounding underground openings in ... more An understanding of the structure and state of the rock mass surrounding underground openings in the potash mines is critically important for safe mining, planning the methods of extraction of an orebody, and preventing the influx of ground water. Continuous common offset ground penetrating radar (GPR) data were acquired in the potash mine operated by the Joint Stock Company (JSC) "Silvinit" (Russia) as part of an investigation of both pre-existing fractures exposed by mine workings and other anomalous geological structures. During the course of GPR investigation, the electrical properties of salt-bearing units were determined, site-specific data acquisition techniques and object-oriented data processing schemes adapted to the geological and geotechnical environment of the Upper Kama potash deposit were developed, and the methodology of 2-D and 3-D GPR data interpretation using interactive modeling was worked out. Open fractures and fault and fold features were successfully mapped using 2-D and 3-D GPR techniques. FK filtering significantly improved the reliability of fracture detection. Spatial models of mapped fractures were created using 3-D GPR imaging technique. Migration of the georadar data was required to obtain the true geometry of folded salt beds. The results of this GPR-based investigation demonstrate that the ground penetrating radar georadar method is capable of providing valuable information about deformation structures within the evaporite units of the Upper Kama potash deposit.
Two-dimensional (2-D) electrical resistivity data were acquired across and in proximity to active... more Two-dimensional (2-D) electrical resistivity data were acquired across and in proximity to active sinkholes at two Missouri Department of Transportation (MoDOT) highway-construction sites. Construction site #1 is located in Greene County, Missouri; site #2 is located in Jefferson County, Missouri. Two relatively dense grids ("1A" and "1B") of electrical resistivity data were acquired at Greene County site #1 as part of a geotechnical investigation of a proposed interchange. Several active sinkholes with exposed throat diameters on the order of 1.5 ft had been discovered during a routine visual inspection of the site, and the District Geologist decided that a geophysical investigation was warranted prior to routine boring. The primary objective of the electrical resistivity study was to determine if substantive air-filled karstic cavities were present in the subsurface. Secondary objectives were to estimate depth to bedrock and identify anomalous subsurface conditions that might compromise the integrity of the proposed intersection or complicate construction. The electrical resistivity data proved to be of significant utility. Substantive air-filled voids were not imaged on the resistivity profiles. A depth to bedrock structure contour map was generated for the site, and prominent clay-filled and apparently inactive karstic cavities were identified beneath segments of proposed new roadway. A relatively dense grid of electrical resistivity data was also acquired at Jefferson County site #2. These electrical resistivity data were acquired because a previously unmapped, oval-shaped, clay-filled, sinkhole (approximately 50 ft x 35 ft x 15 ft; length x width x height) near the centerline of the proposed southbound lanes effectively "emptied" overnight after overlying soil had been stripped by earth moving equipment. The supervising geologist authorized the acquisition of the geophysical data in order to image the subsurface immediately beneath and adjacent to the sinkhole. The primary concern was that the sinkhole was underlain by a large air-filled cavity. The interpretation of the resistivity data indicated the reactivated sinkhole was not underlain by a substantive cavity. Rather, the soil in the sinkhole appears to have "flowed" into the subsurface through solution-widened system of joints that do not underlie the sinkhole and probably do not pose a significant risk in terms of catastrophic collapse under load.
Sinkholes and the Engineering and Environmental Impacts of Karst, Sep 18, 2008
Electrical Resistivity profiles were acquired along three separate parallel traverses on a steepl... more Electrical Resistivity profiles were acquired along three separate parallel traverses on a steeply dipping slope at a construction site near Kansas City, Missouri. The intent was to determine variable depth to bedrock and differentiate the interlayered limestones and shales. This information in conjunction with boring data was necessary for optimum location of a foundation. The determination of depth to bedrock along the electrical resistivity traverses was complicated by several factors. First, eleven different formally-defined lithologic units (alternating limestones and shales) subcrop along the length of the traverses, so the top of rock is not defined by a fairly-consistent resistivity contour-value. Additionally, the limestone units do not thin gradually. Rather, they terminate abruptly as undercut scarps. The differentiation and mapping of the various subsurface lithologic units was also complicated because of variable water saturation along the length of the traverses. As a result, each lithologic unit is characterized by a range in electrical resistivities that vary depending upon the degree of saturation. The interpreted electrical resistivity profiles correlate well with the three borings that were acquired on-site and depth to water table control.
This project is aimed at graduate research training of students interested in pursuing careers in... more This project is aimed at graduate research training of students interested in pursuing careers in transportation areas. Each year, financial support was provided to recruit eight new graduate students interested in pursuing a doctoral degree in a transportation area. These students could pursue doctoral studies in any department at Missouri S&T. In departments where a master's degree is the highest degree awarded, students pursuing a master's degree with a thesis option will be considered. Areas stated in the goals, interests and objectives of the State Departments of Transportation and Missouri Department of Transportation in particular were considered for support in this project.
Four Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) profiles and borehole data were acquired on the fron... more Four Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) profiles and borehole data were acquired on the front face of the earth-filled dam and on the flanks, constituting Lake #1, in order to locate the seepage zone, the flow path, and to determine possible reasons of the seepage. The seepage, observed a year after the construction in the southwestern part of the lake, was severe and could cause further softening, slippage and erosion of soil, developing of pipe holes, increasing the water outflow and risk to the embankment integrity. The owner agreed to drain the lake in order to acquire geophysical and borehole data. Based on the analyses of the acquired ERT and borehole data, four solution-widened fracture zones trending from southwest to northeast were identified. It was concluded that the seepage pathway beneath the dam was through a solution-widened fracture zone, the top of which constituted the original stream channel.
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) profiles acquired during two separate field investigations are pre... more Ground penetrating radar (GPR) profiles acquired during two separate field investigations are presented. The intent is simply to illustrate that GPR can be used for rebar detection and investigation of abandoned gas station site to confirm whether the metal underground gasoline storage tanks had been removed. The objective of each investigation is summarized, accompanied by brief descriptions of the nature of the target of interest. The application of GPR to the investigations described in this paper is not new. However, the presentation and illustration of multiple applications of this imaging technology can be of interest for practitioners. Данные метода георадар, полученные на двух объектах представлены в данной работе. Целью публикации была простая иллюстрация возможностей использования метода для локации арматуры и при обследовании подготовленного на продажу участка бывшей бензозаправочной станции для подтверждения того что металлические баки, использованные при хранении бензин...
This article presents the results of a study of gold samples obtained by students during a practi... more This article presents the results of a study of gold samples obtained by students during a practical field trip in the summer of 2014. Placer gold samples retrieved from four rivers in southeast Siberia (Khakassia and Tyva territories) by panning and sluicing were described and analyzed compositionally by Scanning Electron Microscopy. There is evidence from grain flattening and morphology for significant variations in gold transport distance, both within and between sample locations. The composition and texture of gold is compared to similar studies in the Yukon, and it is inferred that most of the placer gold in the region originated from orogenic lode sources. This orogenic gold is of Devonian to Carboniferous age. There is also evidence for a contribution from igneous intrusionrelated bedrock gold, which is supported by the presence of granite, granodiorite and sienite intrusions of Devonian age. There is scope for further study, since relatively few grains were analyzed here. In addition, if compositional data of the prospective primary gold deposits can be obtained, there would be potential for more precise determination of provenance.
Symposium on the Application of Geophysics to Engineering and Environmental Problems 2010, 2010
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) profiles acquired during seven separate field investigations are p... more Ground penetrating radar (GPR) profiles acquired during seven separate field investigations are presented. The intent is simply to illustrate that GPR can be used to detect rebar, pre-tensioned tendons, deteriorated and/or detached concrete/fill, buried utilities, underground storage tanks, and buried foundations. The objective of each investigation is summarized, accompanied by brief descriptions of the nature of the target of interest. The application of GPR to the investigations described in this paper is not new. However, the presentation and illustration of multiple applications of this imaging technology in a single manuscript is somewhat unique.
Symposium on the Application of Geophysics to Engineering and Environmental Problems 2010, 2010
Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) data were acquired on the ground surface across an underg... more Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) data were acquired on the ground surface across an underground limestone mine access tunnel in an effort to characterize the roof rock. This investigation was conducted because simultaneous localized failure occurred on the ceiling of the access tunnel and elsewhere in the mine along a previously unknown northwest trending lineament. The interpretation of the ERT data indicates the limestone roof rock above the tunnel is dissected by several prominent clay-bearing near-vertical solution-widened fractures (joints or faults) that are not visually exposed on the ceiling of the tunnel. Roof rock failure in the mine access tunnel occurred at the intersection of projected lineament and one of the more prominent interpreted solution-widened fractures.
Symposium on the Application of Geophysics to Engineering and Environmental Problems 2010, 2010
Fracture detection and delineation is very important for salt mines operation because fracturing ... more Fracture detection and delineation is very important for salt mines operation because fracturing significantly increases the probability of failure of supporting pillars and overlaying water protective beds. Results of forward modeling studies confirmed the feasibility of georadar with a 400 MHz antenna to reliably detect the millimetric scale fracture. 3-D GPR data were acquired in the potash mine near the city of Solikamsk, Russia to evaluate the effectiveness of imaging technology to detect and delineate the fractures in heterogeneous salt rock. Continuous common-offset data were obtained at seven parallel profiles across the fracture exposed in the wall of a mine pillar. The pillar was 4.5 m thick and comprised of interbedded layers of salt rock and clay. The open millimetric scale subvertical fracture crosscuts the pillar at angle of 25°. Data were collected using commercial OKO georadar system (Logis, Russia) with a 400 MHz shielded antenna. ReflexW and OpendTect software were used for processing and interpretation of the 2-D radargrams and combined 3-D data set. The 3-D migration allowed generating a true image of subsurface structures and creating a spatial model of fractures. Using the image of known fracture as interpretation template, fracture having no surface evidence was detected.
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Papers by Oleg N Kovin