School of International Relations Doctor of Philosophy by Sung Yong Lee This thesis examines the ... more School of International Relations Doctor of Philosophy by Sung Yong Lee This thesis examines the processes of the peace negotiations in Cambodia (1987-1993) and El Salvador (1989-1993) in order to address the following question: What does the interplay between the national factions and the external interveners in peace negotiations tell us about their chances of achieving their goals? By using the concept of 'interplay,' this study reinterprets the negotiation processes as the negotiating actors' exchanges of strategic moves. In particular, it explores how the negotiating actors' attitudes towards the core negotiation issues changed in the two cases and how the changes affected their counterparts' negotiating strategies. There are two aspects to the findings of this thesis, one descriptive and the other explanatory. First, this study has investigated the characteristics of the negotiating actors' strategies and the pattern of the interplay between them. As for the interveners' strategies, this thesis finds that impartial third parties generally employ diplomatic intervention methods, while advocate states enjoy a wider range of options. In addition, national factions' behaviour is generally affected by three factors: their fundamental goals, the domestic resources under their control, and the incentives or pressure from external interveners. It is also observed that the stronger the intervention becomes, the more that national factions' provisional strategies are inclined to be receptive towards the intervention. Nevertheless, the national factions rarely fully accepted proposals that they deemed harmful to the achievement of their fundamental goals. Second, based on the descriptive findings, this thesis highlights the importance of mutual understanding between national factions and external interveners. The case studies of Cambodia and El Salvador show that the effectiveness of a particular intervention depends not so much on the type of method employed but on the context in which it is applied. An intervention is more likely to be effective when it is used in a way that national factions can understand and is supported by the consistently strong attention of external interveners. In addition, it is observed that actors' ethnocentric perceptions on core concepts of conflict and negotiation as well as their lack of an effective communication capability are some of the common causes of the misunderstandings that arise during negotiation processes. Acronyms v Chapter 1 Introduction 1
... Orchestrating Regional Security Cooperation in Peace Negotiations: A Comparative Study of the... more ... Orchestrating Regional Security Cooperation in Peace Negotiations: A Comparative Study of the Civil Wars in Cambodia and El Salvador. ... member states.76 76. Lizée (note 12) pp.7379. View all notes. El Salvador. As stated above ...
The case study chapters of this volume examine four behavioural patterns of local peacebuilders a... more The case study chapters of this volume examine four behavioural patterns of local peacebuilders as stated above. They examine how the four types of ownership promotion have been employed in the two areas, focusing specifically on the strategies local actors utilize to develop their unique models of peacebuilding, the distinguishing features of each of these, and their limitations as models of authentically local peacebuilding. This chapter introduces a contrasting approach to ownership development, that entails grassroots peacebuilders’ efforts to reduce the influence from external donors by gaining more financial independence. One popular way is to develop income generation schemes, in which funding sources are sought from collaboration with local communities and their own services for work partners. Moreover, local peacebuilders frequently adopt two types of actions to reduce their over-reliance on a small number of external supporters: diversification of partnership and local coalition building. While these efforts are unlikely to bring about complete autonomy for local peacebuilders, successful examples significantly increase their negotiation power vis-a-vis the demands from external actors, in terms of selecting the programmes to be initiated and those which will continue to operate, and determining operational features.
IntroductIon This chapter introduces and analyses friction-avoiding approaches, the name given to... more IntroductIon This chapter introduces and analyses friction-avoiding approaches, the name given to more subtle and informal methods used by local peacebuilders to push forward their agenda. Local peacebuilders are aware that many previous problems relevant to liberal peace were caused either by international organisations (e.g., UNDP and the World Bank) or by bilateral development agencies (e.g., USAID, DFID and JICA). As the representatives of their governments or home organisations, the local offices of these agencies rigidly apply their principles to all programmes funded by them. After experiencing high levels of intervention over previous decades, an increasing number of local NGOs have begun to seek partnership with civilian actors in economically developed countries. Even in the case where local peacebuilders disagree with the donors' agenda or are anxious about their operational principles, local actors do not always attempt to address such issues by challenging them or by developing alternative forms of local-international collaboration. There are many factors that prevent local actors' overt resistance, which include the risk of losing the ongoing support, the potential friction with other involved actors, a lack of confidence with their own ideas, and the simple reluctance to make substantial changes to the status quo. In particular, the difficulties in securing funding was highlighted by many local peacebuilders as the main challenge. As the opportunities to get international funding have significantly decreased since the CHAPTER 5
This chapter explores the roles of religious leaders as bridgebuilders in conflict-affected socie... more This chapter explores the roles of religious leaders as bridgebuilders in conflict-affected societies by examining the peace activities of Cambodian Buddhist monks. It presents the forms of social bridges that the monks have developed by utilising their religious legitimacy, local knowledge, and social networks. The Buddhist monks play significant roles in building a horizontal bridge, redressing the public's misunderstanding of the minorities' demands and activities, delivering accurate information to different social groups, and reducing people's reluctance or fear about expressing their support. Then it analyses the hybrid nature of the peacebuilding programmes developed by the monks. Many principles and operational features of these programmes incorporate international approaches to peacebuilding, Buddhist principles and philosophy, as well as local cosmologies and rituals. Such hybridity is an outcome of Buddhist monks' efforts to help the public understand the objectives of their activities and reduce the perceived barriers which prevent their participation.
Routledge Companion to Peace and Conflict Studies, 2019
We propose an algorithm for distributed charging control of electric vehicles (EVs) using online ... more We propose an algorithm for distributed charging control of electric vehicles (EVs) using online learning and online convex optimization. Many distributed charging control algorithms in the literature implicitly assume fast twoway communication between a distribution company and EV customers. This assumption is impractical at present and raises privacy and security concerns. Our algorithm does not use this assumption; however, at the expense of slower convergence to the optimal solution. The proposed algorithm requires one-way communication, which is implemented through the distribution company publishing the pricing profiles of the previous days. We provide convergence results of the algorithm and illustrate the results through numerical examples.
This article explores the nature of everyday peace in local communities in Cambodia. Drawing on i... more This article explores the nature of everyday peace in local communities in Cambodia. Drawing on interviews and observation and focusing on the reconstruction of relationship between community residents and former Khmer Rouge leaders, the analysis demonstrates that everyday peace in these communities is characterised by three features: plurality, subtlety, and connectivity. The findings demonstrate how the nature of social relationships with former harm-doers varies within and between communities; sheds light on the subtle, mundane, and episodic ways in which peace is sustained and manifested; and highlights the connectivity of local agency with broader political contexts that contribute to shaping everyday practices and experiences of peace. In conclusion, this article revisits the fixity and homogeneity of the peace in a society which is assumed by many studies, calls for further exploration of the prepolitical nature of everyday peace, and discusses implications for a recent acade...
The case study chapters of this volume examine four behavioural patterns of local peacebuilders a... more The case study chapters of this volume examine four behavioural patterns of local peacebuilders as stated above. They examine how the four types of ownership promotion have been employed in the two areas, focusing specifically on the strategies local actors utilize to develop their unique models of peacebuilding, the distinguishing features of each of these, and their limitations as models of authentically local peacebuilding. This chapter introduces the ownership inheritance cases where local actors strengthen their commitment to the peacebuilding programmes concerned through external actors’ voluntary ownership transfer. Such ownership inheritance frequently takes place while an organisation initially established by external peacebuilding actors attempts to localise. In other cases, local actors’ high-level of commitment is designed and encouraged by external advocates from the outset. Successful development of ownership inheritance brings about high levels of local ownership in t...
This chapter offers readers background information about the two case studies from a comparative ... more This chapter offers readers background information about the two case studies from a comparative perspective. All social developments are contextual and so is local peacebuilding. The peacebuilding models promoted by local actors are subject to the social, cultural and structural conditions of the society and reflect the local actors’ views and interests constructed within such contexts. The local models of peacebuilding in Mindanao and Cambodia, in this sense, present significant discrepancies in terms of the identity of local peacebuilders, the organisational structure of these agencies, types of programmes, strategies for ownership enhancement, and resources to be mobilised and utilised for operation. The long history of Khmer as a single political and cultural entity, the total civil war that has little relevance to local populations’ interests, and the externally-led peacebuilding in the aftermath of the civil war formed a more homogenous group of local peacebuilders in Cambodi...
ABSTRACT This article explores how local resilience is realised in post-conflict reconstruction, ... more ABSTRACT This article explores how local resilience is realised in post-conflict reconstruction, by examining the redevelopment of Buddhist institutions in Cambodia. It firstly proposes three forms of resilience that were significant in the local level peacebuilding practice in the country – recovery, maintenance and transformation – and examines the process by which each form of resilience was materialised from the perspectives of local communities. Moreover, this study highlights two factors that determined the development of local resilience: ontological security and local leadership structure. Based on the empirical findings, this study discusses the conceptual and theoretical implications of such elements of resilient peacebuilding.
ABSTRACT Through consideration of the promotion of democracy in post-war reconstruction in the co... more ABSTRACT Through consideration of the promotion of democracy in post-war reconstruction in the country, this article aims to explain why anti-government protests in Cambodia have recently become more outspoken, organised and sustained. It argues that two areas of democracy promotion driven by international peacebuilding agencies have progressed in different directions. Moreover, while the rapid progress at institutional level during the 1990s has significantly slowed in recent years, the democracy movement within Cambodian civil society has constantly advanced. Hence, the current process at the institutional level cannot accommodate the raised expectations of and demands from civil society. The article then discusses the implications of such rapid and complex transformation of the Cambodian local context for the practice of post-war peacebuilding.
The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, ... more The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in DRO • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders.
Abstract This article examines the Buddhist peace movements in Cambodia, which are being revitali... more Abstract This article examines the Buddhist peace movements in Cambodia, which are being revitalised after a long silence since the late 1990s. Specifically, it explains how Cambodian Buddhist monks develop and maintain their normative legitimacy and connection with civilian followers by focusing on their approaches to four types of resources: religious authority, cultural knowledge, social networks, and new communication technology. Through the analysis, the study aims to offer empirical examples of religious leaders’ strategies for promoting peace activism and to demonstrate an ideal type of locally owned peace-building promoted in post-conflict contexts, both of which are rarely available in the existing literature.
ABSTRACT This paper examines the intervention behavior of small or middle-sized neighbor countrie... more ABSTRACT This paper examines the intervention behavior of small or middle-sized neighbor countries in civil war peace negotiations by examining Thailand in the Cambodian peace process and Chad in the peace negotiations over Darfur, Sudan. Firstly, it presents that the primary motivations for the interventions were two types of fear: fear of the potentially critical domestic impact of the external conflicts, and fear of their limited leverage over the conflicts. Secondly, these states pursued proactive but biased strategies for early intervention, which included providing physical/substantial support to one side in the conflicts, submitting unilateral peace proposals, and attempting to strengthen their diplomatic alliances. Thirdly, while both countries changed their intervention strategies in an effort to assume a more constructive role in the respective peace processes, the consequences of their changed strategies differed fundamentally, a difference chiefly due to how their new diplomatic strategies were utilized and supported by external actors.
ABSTRACT This article argues that referendums in societies coming out of war often fit into the c... more ABSTRACT This article argues that referendums in societies coming out of war often fit into the conflict resolution rather than the conflict transformation paradigm. As conflict resolution devices, they may be one-off events rather than part of a longer term attempt to recalibrate relationships between antagonistic groups. Using a number of case studies, the article argues that unless the ground is prepared beforehand, referendums may have a limited ability to bring about reconciliation. Some well-timed referendums have advanced peace processes at critical moments, but these are exceptions and we should be cautious in recommending them as exemplars to other cases. The article highlights three common contextual issues that limit the conflict amelioration possibility of referendums: the exclusion of key constituencies from debates on the referendum process, a lack of voter education, and generalized insecurity.
School of International Relations Doctor of Philosophy by Sung Yong Lee This thesis examines the ... more School of International Relations Doctor of Philosophy by Sung Yong Lee This thesis examines the processes of the peace negotiations in Cambodia (1987-1993) and El Salvador (1989-1993) in order to address the following question: What does the interplay between the national factions and the external interveners in peace negotiations tell us about their chances of achieving their goals? By using the concept of 'interplay,' this study reinterprets the negotiation processes as the negotiating actors' exchanges of strategic moves. In particular, it explores how the negotiating actors' attitudes towards the core negotiation issues changed in the two cases and how the changes affected their counterparts' negotiating strategies. There are two aspects to the findings of this thesis, one descriptive and the other explanatory. First, this study has investigated the characteristics of the negotiating actors' strategies and the pattern of the interplay between them. As for the interveners' strategies, this thesis finds that impartial third parties generally employ diplomatic intervention methods, while advocate states enjoy a wider range of options. In addition, national factions' behaviour is generally affected by three factors: their fundamental goals, the domestic resources under their control, and the incentives or pressure from external interveners. It is also observed that the stronger the intervention becomes, the more that national factions' provisional strategies are inclined to be receptive towards the intervention. Nevertheless, the national factions rarely fully accepted proposals that they deemed harmful to the achievement of their fundamental goals. Second, based on the descriptive findings, this thesis highlights the importance of mutual understanding between national factions and external interveners. The case studies of Cambodia and El Salvador show that the effectiveness of a particular intervention depends not so much on the type of method employed but on the context in which it is applied. An intervention is more likely to be effective when it is used in a way that national factions can understand and is supported by the consistently strong attention of external interveners. In addition, it is observed that actors' ethnocentric perceptions on core concepts of conflict and negotiation as well as their lack of an effective communication capability are some of the common causes of the misunderstandings that arise during negotiation processes. Acronyms v Chapter 1 Introduction 1
... Orchestrating Regional Security Cooperation in Peace Negotiations: A Comparative Study of the... more ... Orchestrating Regional Security Cooperation in Peace Negotiations: A Comparative Study of the Civil Wars in Cambodia and El Salvador. ... member states.76 76. Lizée (note 12) pp.7379. View all notes. El Salvador. As stated above ...
The case study chapters of this volume examine four behavioural patterns of local peacebuilders a... more The case study chapters of this volume examine four behavioural patterns of local peacebuilders as stated above. They examine how the four types of ownership promotion have been employed in the two areas, focusing specifically on the strategies local actors utilize to develop their unique models of peacebuilding, the distinguishing features of each of these, and their limitations as models of authentically local peacebuilding. This chapter introduces a contrasting approach to ownership development, that entails grassroots peacebuilders’ efforts to reduce the influence from external donors by gaining more financial independence. One popular way is to develop income generation schemes, in which funding sources are sought from collaboration with local communities and their own services for work partners. Moreover, local peacebuilders frequently adopt two types of actions to reduce their over-reliance on a small number of external supporters: diversification of partnership and local coalition building. While these efforts are unlikely to bring about complete autonomy for local peacebuilders, successful examples significantly increase their negotiation power vis-a-vis the demands from external actors, in terms of selecting the programmes to be initiated and those which will continue to operate, and determining operational features.
IntroductIon This chapter introduces and analyses friction-avoiding approaches, the name given to... more IntroductIon This chapter introduces and analyses friction-avoiding approaches, the name given to more subtle and informal methods used by local peacebuilders to push forward their agenda. Local peacebuilders are aware that many previous problems relevant to liberal peace were caused either by international organisations (e.g., UNDP and the World Bank) or by bilateral development agencies (e.g., USAID, DFID and JICA). As the representatives of their governments or home organisations, the local offices of these agencies rigidly apply their principles to all programmes funded by them. After experiencing high levels of intervention over previous decades, an increasing number of local NGOs have begun to seek partnership with civilian actors in economically developed countries. Even in the case where local peacebuilders disagree with the donors' agenda or are anxious about their operational principles, local actors do not always attempt to address such issues by challenging them or by developing alternative forms of local-international collaboration. There are many factors that prevent local actors' overt resistance, which include the risk of losing the ongoing support, the potential friction with other involved actors, a lack of confidence with their own ideas, and the simple reluctance to make substantial changes to the status quo. In particular, the difficulties in securing funding was highlighted by many local peacebuilders as the main challenge. As the opportunities to get international funding have significantly decreased since the CHAPTER 5
This chapter explores the roles of religious leaders as bridgebuilders in conflict-affected socie... more This chapter explores the roles of religious leaders as bridgebuilders in conflict-affected societies by examining the peace activities of Cambodian Buddhist monks. It presents the forms of social bridges that the monks have developed by utilising their religious legitimacy, local knowledge, and social networks. The Buddhist monks play significant roles in building a horizontal bridge, redressing the public's misunderstanding of the minorities' demands and activities, delivering accurate information to different social groups, and reducing people's reluctance or fear about expressing their support. Then it analyses the hybrid nature of the peacebuilding programmes developed by the monks. Many principles and operational features of these programmes incorporate international approaches to peacebuilding, Buddhist principles and philosophy, as well as local cosmologies and rituals. Such hybridity is an outcome of Buddhist monks' efforts to help the public understand the objectives of their activities and reduce the perceived barriers which prevent their participation.
Routledge Companion to Peace and Conflict Studies, 2019
We propose an algorithm for distributed charging control of electric vehicles (EVs) using online ... more We propose an algorithm for distributed charging control of electric vehicles (EVs) using online learning and online convex optimization. Many distributed charging control algorithms in the literature implicitly assume fast twoway communication between a distribution company and EV customers. This assumption is impractical at present and raises privacy and security concerns. Our algorithm does not use this assumption; however, at the expense of slower convergence to the optimal solution. The proposed algorithm requires one-way communication, which is implemented through the distribution company publishing the pricing profiles of the previous days. We provide convergence results of the algorithm and illustrate the results through numerical examples.
This article explores the nature of everyday peace in local communities in Cambodia. Drawing on i... more This article explores the nature of everyday peace in local communities in Cambodia. Drawing on interviews and observation and focusing on the reconstruction of relationship between community residents and former Khmer Rouge leaders, the analysis demonstrates that everyday peace in these communities is characterised by three features: plurality, subtlety, and connectivity. The findings demonstrate how the nature of social relationships with former harm-doers varies within and between communities; sheds light on the subtle, mundane, and episodic ways in which peace is sustained and manifested; and highlights the connectivity of local agency with broader political contexts that contribute to shaping everyday practices and experiences of peace. In conclusion, this article revisits the fixity and homogeneity of the peace in a society which is assumed by many studies, calls for further exploration of the prepolitical nature of everyday peace, and discusses implications for a recent acade...
The case study chapters of this volume examine four behavioural patterns of local peacebuilders a... more The case study chapters of this volume examine four behavioural patterns of local peacebuilders as stated above. They examine how the four types of ownership promotion have been employed in the two areas, focusing specifically on the strategies local actors utilize to develop their unique models of peacebuilding, the distinguishing features of each of these, and their limitations as models of authentically local peacebuilding. This chapter introduces the ownership inheritance cases where local actors strengthen their commitment to the peacebuilding programmes concerned through external actors’ voluntary ownership transfer. Such ownership inheritance frequently takes place while an organisation initially established by external peacebuilding actors attempts to localise. In other cases, local actors’ high-level of commitment is designed and encouraged by external advocates from the outset. Successful development of ownership inheritance brings about high levels of local ownership in t...
This chapter offers readers background information about the two case studies from a comparative ... more This chapter offers readers background information about the two case studies from a comparative perspective. All social developments are contextual and so is local peacebuilding. The peacebuilding models promoted by local actors are subject to the social, cultural and structural conditions of the society and reflect the local actors’ views and interests constructed within such contexts. The local models of peacebuilding in Mindanao and Cambodia, in this sense, present significant discrepancies in terms of the identity of local peacebuilders, the organisational structure of these agencies, types of programmes, strategies for ownership enhancement, and resources to be mobilised and utilised for operation. The long history of Khmer as a single political and cultural entity, the total civil war that has little relevance to local populations’ interests, and the externally-led peacebuilding in the aftermath of the civil war formed a more homogenous group of local peacebuilders in Cambodi...
ABSTRACT This article explores how local resilience is realised in post-conflict reconstruction, ... more ABSTRACT This article explores how local resilience is realised in post-conflict reconstruction, by examining the redevelopment of Buddhist institutions in Cambodia. It firstly proposes three forms of resilience that were significant in the local level peacebuilding practice in the country – recovery, maintenance and transformation – and examines the process by which each form of resilience was materialised from the perspectives of local communities. Moreover, this study highlights two factors that determined the development of local resilience: ontological security and local leadership structure. Based on the empirical findings, this study discusses the conceptual and theoretical implications of such elements of resilient peacebuilding.
ABSTRACT Through consideration of the promotion of democracy in post-war reconstruction in the co... more ABSTRACT Through consideration of the promotion of democracy in post-war reconstruction in the country, this article aims to explain why anti-government protests in Cambodia have recently become more outspoken, organised and sustained. It argues that two areas of democracy promotion driven by international peacebuilding agencies have progressed in different directions. Moreover, while the rapid progress at institutional level during the 1990s has significantly slowed in recent years, the democracy movement within Cambodian civil society has constantly advanced. Hence, the current process at the institutional level cannot accommodate the raised expectations of and demands from civil society. The article then discusses the implications of such rapid and complex transformation of the Cambodian local context for the practice of post-war peacebuilding.
The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, ... more The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in DRO • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders.
Abstract This article examines the Buddhist peace movements in Cambodia, which are being revitali... more Abstract This article examines the Buddhist peace movements in Cambodia, which are being revitalised after a long silence since the late 1990s. Specifically, it explains how Cambodian Buddhist monks develop and maintain their normative legitimacy and connection with civilian followers by focusing on their approaches to four types of resources: religious authority, cultural knowledge, social networks, and new communication technology. Through the analysis, the study aims to offer empirical examples of religious leaders’ strategies for promoting peace activism and to demonstrate an ideal type of locally owned peace-building promoted in post-conflict contexts, both of which are rarely available in the existing literature.
ABSTRACT This paper examines the intervention behavior of small or middle-sized neighbor countrie... more ABSTRACT This paper examines the intervention behavior of small or middle-sized neighbor countries in civil war peace negotiations by examining Thailand in the Cambodian peace process and Chad in the peace negotiations over Darfur, Sudan. Firstly, it presents that the primary motivations for the interventions were two types of fear: fear of the potentially critical domestic impact of the external conflicts, and fear of their limited leverage over the conflicts. Secondly, these states pursued proactive but biased strategies for early intervention, which included providing physical/substantial support to one side in the conflicts, submitting unilateral peace proposals, and attempting to strengthen their diplomatic alliances. Thirdly, while both countries changed their intervention strategies in an effort to assume a more constructive role in the respective peace processes, the consequences of their changed strategies differed fundamentally, a difference chiefly due to how their new diplomatic strategies were utilized and supported by external actors.
ABSTRACT This article argues that referendums in societies coming out of war often fit into the c... more ABSTRACT This article argues that referendums in societies coming out of war often fit into the conflict resolution rather than the conflict transformation paradigm. As conflict resolution devices, they may be one-off events rather than part of a longer term attempt to recalibrate relationships between antagonistic groups. Using a number of case studies, the article argues that unless the ground is prepared beforehand, referendums may have a limited ability to bring about reconciliation. Some well-timed referendums have advanced peace processes at critical moments, but these are exceptions and we should be cautious in recommending them as exemplars to other cases. The article highlights three common contextual issues that limit the conflict amelioration possibility of referendums: the exclusion of key constituencies from debates on the referendum process, a lack of voter education, and generalized insecurity.
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